ite  star'     ;d  below 


OU     ^ERN  BRANCH,. 
'Uo\\\  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

BRARY, 

■GELES,  CALJF, 


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LIPPINCOTT'S  SCHOOL  PROJECT    SERIES 

EDITED  BY  W.  F.  RUSSELL.  A.B..  Ph.D. 

DEAN  COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 


PROJECTS  IN  THE 
PRIMARY  GRADES 

A  PLAN  OF  WORK  FOR  THE  PRIMARY 
GRADES   AND   THE    KINDERGARTEN 


BY 
ALICE  M.  KRACKOWIZER 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 
J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

3  7  A  c;  ^ 


COPTRIQHT,  1919,   BT  I.  B.   LIPPINCOTT  COUPANT 


"  PrflVlTED  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

AT  THE  WASHINGTOM  SQUARE  PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA,    U.  S.  A. 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OP  MY  FATHER,  WHOSE 
ILLUMINING  PRESENCE  FILLED  TO  THE 
BRIM  MY  CUP  OF  CHILD  HAPPINESS, 
THIS   LITTLE    BOOK  IS   DEDICATED 


PREFACE 

It  is  fitting  that  the  influences  which  have 
moulded  this  book  should  be  recognized. 
The  prophetic  inspiration  of  Col.  F.  W. 
Parker  kindled  the  spark  of  youthful  en- 
thusiasm which,  in  this  instance,  has  kept 
the  fire  burning  for  many  years.  As  Col- 
onel Parker  himself  would  have  modified 
and  adapted  his  expression  of  himself  to  the 
changing  situation,  so  the  work  has  gone  on. 
The  scientific  training  of  Professor  Rollin 
D.  Salisbury,  and  the  stimulation  and  en- 
couragement of  Dr.  F.  G.  Bonser,  Dr.  F. 
McMurry,  and  Dr.  W.  H.  Kilpatrick  have 
done  much  to  determine  the  later  trend  of 
the  early  vision.  The  realization  of  an  ideal 
is  still  the  goal ;  the  ideal  in  its  outward  man- 
ifestation has  changed  somewhat.  This  is 
one  of  the  incidentals  of  growth  and  prog- 
ress. Gratefully  remembering  the  influ- 
ences of  these  men,  the  writer  also  wishes 


vi  PREFACE 

to  acknowledge  the  courtesy  and  helpful 
suggestions  of  Miss  Moore,  Miss  Hill  and 
Miss  Garrison  of  Teachers'  College,  and  of 
Miss  F.  W.  Dimn,  of  Virginia. 

Alice  M.  Kjjackowizer 

YONKERS,  N.  Y.,  1918 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 


Introduction  by  Dr.  F.  G.  Bonser,  Teachers' 

College,  Columbia  University 1 

The  Purpose  of  the  Book 7 

Children's  'Purposeful  Activities' 15 

Play  as  'Purposeful  Activity' 27 

Constructive  Aqtivities  as  'Purposeful  Ac- 
tivities'   34 

Social  Experience  and  'Purposeful  Activities'  39 

The  Ethical  Aspect 92 

Nature  Experience  and  'Purposeful  Ac- 
tivities'    107 

Literature  and  'Purposeful  Activities' 155 

The  'Formal  Subjects'  as  'Purposeful  Activi- 
ties'   165 

Conclusion 200 

Bibliography 202 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Projects.    Primary  Methods  Class  Frontispiece 
Making  Drills  for  Seed.     Keep  up  the  Sur- 
face Mulch 18 

Making  Our  Bed-room  Furniture,    Weaving 

Our  Rug  ;  Making  May  Baskets 22 

Indians.    A  Japanese  School 28 

Alice  In  Wonderland 30 

Mother  Goose.     Kindergartners,   Colorado 

State  Teacher's  College 32 

Doll  House  Made  by  Children 36 

Making  Beet  Sugar 38 

Showing  the  Spinning  Process.    Showing  the 

Carding  Process 88 

Constructing  a  New  England  Fishing  Town  . .  94 

Primary  Methods  Class 120 

Primary  Methods  Class.  .   130 


PROJECTS  IN  THE 
PRIMARY  GRADES 

INTRODUCTION 

One  of  the  most  important  and  at  the  same 
time  most  difficult  problems  in  the  begin- 
ning period  of  formal  education  is  that  of 
using  the  objects  and  activities  all  about 
children  as  a  means  of  continued  but  more 
rapid  growth.  This  more  rapid  growth  is 
most  naturally  promoted  by  taking  the  vari- 
ous aspects  of  everyday  experience,  one  by 
one,  and  aiding  the  children  to  see,  under- 
stand, and  appreciate  more  of  their  meaning 
and  significance.  The  experience  of  young 
children  is  a  more  or  less  confused  mass  of 
ideas  and  feelings  about  objects  and  activi- 
ties. Nature  and  social  life  with  all  of  their 
complex  activities  are  all  about  them,  but 
ithey  have  become  conscious  of  few  details. 
Their  education  is  largely  a  problem  of  not- 


2      PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

ing  and  appreciating  for  their  worth  in- 
creasingly numerous  facts  and  relationships 
as  these  may  be  made  to  increase  their  range, 
variety,  and  richness  of  experience.  Seeing 
and  understanding  things  not  yet  observed, 
participating  in  activities  previously  un- 
known or  disregarded,  awakening  to  the 
stimulation  of  surroundings  earlier  making 
no  appeal — these  are  the  characteristics  of 
the  normally  unfolding  minds  of  children. 

But,  in  addition  to  promoting  this  growth 
by  the  selection,  stimulation  and  direction  of 
the  natural  activities  of  children  in  their  en- 
vironment of  nature  and  social  life,  educa- 
tion is  confronted  with  the  problem  of  de- 
veloping appreciation  of  the  need  and  value 
of  the  tools  by  which  these  experiences  are 
most  effectively  extended  and  to  master  their 
uses.  To  master  the  mechanics  of  these  tool 
subjects  or  processes — reading,  writing,  and 
number — the  life  experiences  all  about  chil- 
dren are  very  often  quite  subordinated  or 
even  omitted  from  serious  consideration. 
Those  teachers  attempting  to  make  much  of 


INTRODUCTION  3 

the  development  of  children  by  a  natural, 
wholesome  use  of  their  interests  and  the  life 
about  them  are  frequently  charged  with  neg- 
lecting their  training  in  the  mechanics  of 
these  tool  subjects.  There  is  thus  developed 
an  apparent  opposition  between  the  two 
aspects  of  child  development. 

Miss  Krackowizer  has  endeavored  to 
unify  the  two  phases  of  the  problem.  She 
has  brought  together  many  typical  illustra- 
tions of  the  nature  and  social  experiences  of 
children  and  shown  the  method  of  their 
usage  as  a  means  of  developing  an  apprecia- 
tion of  need  for  reading,  writing,  and  num- 
ber, and  also  the  method  of  their  usage  in 
most  effectively  teaching  the  elementary 
processes  of  these  subjects  as  well.  She  has 
so  organized  the  experiences  that  the  sim- 
pler forms  of  usage  of  these  mechanical 
processes  are  sc  natural  outgrowth  and  part 
of  them.  The  motives  for  carrying  out  the 
various  projects  so  strongly  lay  hold  upon 
the  children  that  interest  and  effort  become 
one  in  attacking  and  solving  the  problems 


4      PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

necessary  to  the  completion  of  the  projects. 
The  effort  put  forth  by  the  children  is  there- 
fore not  artificially  stimulated  or  imposed 
by  the  teacher,  but  is  exercised  spontane- 
ously by  the  children  in  bringing  about  a 
realization  of  the  activities  in  which  they  are 
so  much  interested.  Any  apparent  opposi- 
tion between  interest  and  effort  thus  disap- 
pears, and  likewise  any  apparent  opposition 
between  the  content  of  these  natural  activ- 
ities and  the  tools  needed  for  carrying  them 
out  effectively.  Eeading,  writing,  and  num- 
ber may  thus  be  appreciated  for  their  real 
purpose  and  worth  as  means  for  engaging  in 
interesting  and  valuable  activities  which 
could  not  be  carried  on  without  them.  Such 
direct  and  specific  attention  to  the  details  of 
these  tool  processes  as  is  necessary  for  the 
mastery  of  their  usage  is  thus  naturally  pro- 
vided for — in  other  words,  the  drill  aspects 
of  the  work  are  strongly  motivated  by  the 
activities  themselves. 

The  treatment  of  both  nature  experiences 
and  social  experiences  is  broadly  inclusive 


INTRODUCTION  5 

and  should  be  immediately  helpful  to  teach- 
ers in  whatever  environment  they  may  find 
themselves — country,  village  or  city.  Illus- 
trative units  are  developed  in  sufficient  de- 
tail and  are  sufficiently  varied  in  form  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  method  for  teachers  of 
almost  any  degree  of  training. 

Teachers  very  generally  appreciate  the 
general  character  and  need  of  this  problem 
of  unifying  child  experiences  and  social  aims 
of  education,  and  of  unifying  the  vital  in- 
terests and  activities  of  children  and  the 
mechanical  pro'oesses  of  the  tool  'subjects 
required  for  making*  these  interests  and  ac- 
tivities lead  on  to  further  interests  and  ex- 
•  periences.  But  many  are  unable  to  see  how 
to  bring  about  this  unification.  Miss 
Krackowizer  has  rendered  a  large  service  in 
contributing  this  comprehensive  body  of  il- 
lustrative experience  which  she  has  found 
effective  by  years  of  careful  and  discrimi- 
nating testing  in  -widely  differing  environ- 
ments. Many  of  the  problems  may  be  used 
by  teachers  with  only  slight  modification  to 


6      PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

adapt  them  to  their  own  conditions.  But  the 
value  of  the  book  will  reach  far  beyond  the 
problems  presented  in  detail  in  its  sugges- 
tiveness  of  kinds  and  sources  of  other  prob- 
lems, and  in  the  general  method  of  treatment 
of  problems  arising  naturally  in  the  environ- 
ment and  experiences  of  children.  The  study 
and  use  of  the  book  should  be  a  very  substan- 
tial aid  in  vitalizing,  enriching,  and  unifying 
the  work  of  the  kindergarten  and  primary 
grades. 

Frederick  G.  Bonser 
Columbia  TJnivebsity, 
Teachers'  College 


THE  PURPOSE 

This  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  varied 
experience  in  the  field  of  elementary  school 
work.  It  contains  little  that  has  not  been 
worked  out  by  the  writer  herself  or  by  others 
whom  she  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  ob- 
serve. It  purposes  to  break  down  the  arti- 
ficial barrier  between  first  grade  and  kinder- 
garten; to  do  away  with  much  of  the 
formalism  and  mechanism  of  the  early 
grades ;  to  have  the  child  continue  in  as  nor- 
mal a  way  as  possible  those  life  activities  in 
which  he  is  engaged  outside  of  school ;  to  do 
this  in  the  manner  which  will  best  further 
his  adjustment  to  new  activities  in  which  he 
takes  part;  to  make  the  child  increasingly 
intelligent,  and  much  more  active  in  his  re- 
sponse to  his  environment. 

The  unified  plan  as  proposed,  while  not 
separating  the  different  subjects  of  study 
as  usually  listed,  contains  elements  of  all  and 
forms  the  basis  for  a  more  mature  under- 


8      PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

standing  later  of  the  principles  involved  in 
a  study  of  geography,  nature  study,  history, 
civics,  hygiene,  literature,  and  the  other  sub- 
jects of  the  course  of  study.  In  trying  to 
overcome  the  formalism  of  the  usual  pro- 
gram and  the  wasteful  and  mechanical  sep- 
aration of  subjects,  there  is  no  desire  to 
eliminate  any  of  its  integral  parts ;  there  is 
not  even  a  desire  to  make  incidental'  such 
features  as  reading,  arithmetic,  and  the 
other  formal  subjects.  Beading,  for  in- 
stance, is  as  much  a  part  of  the  entire  scheme 
as  nature  experience  or  other  content  mat- 
^er.xThe  plea  is  merely  for  a  unified  life  at 
school,  where  each  activity  shall  take  its 
legitimate  place,  with  changing  emphasis  on 
the  various  elements,  according  to  the  great- 
est need  at  any  given  time.  All  the  subjects 
of  the  curriculiun  are  represented. 

What  and  how  much  of  this  material 
shall  be  used  in  kindergarten,  in  first,  sec- 
ond and  third  grades,  and  what  shall  be  the 
sequence  must  be  determined  largely  by  local 
conditions.  There  is  more  material  than  any 


THE  PURPOSE  9 

vne  teacher  can  use  in  any  one  year.  It  is 
true  that  the  cMld's  path  for  some  time 
crosses  all  phases  of  his  enviromnent  many 
times  in  varying  degree,  with  varying  em- 
phasis. The  variation  in  his  purposes  se- 
cures repetition  without  monotony. 

Owing  to  the  limitations  of  the  medium  of 
the  printed  page,  the  material  used  in  the 
book  has  had  to  be  divided  into  chapters 
with  specific  names.  This  does  not  mean 
that  there  is  a  sequence  in  schoolroom  prac- 
tice which  is  to  adopt  the  sequence  followed 
by  the  chapters.  The  titles  of  the  chapters 
merely  indicate  some  of  the  most  necessary 
elements  to  be  introduced  into  the  daily  pri- 
mary program.  Projects  of  all  kinds,  in- 
volving play,  social  experience,  nature  ex- 
perience, constructive  activities,  are  part  of 
the  child's  daily  life,  long  before  he  enters 
school ;  they  should  continue  as  parts  of  his 
daily  life  under  normal  condition  while  he 
is  in  school.  New  activities  like  reading, 
writing,  number,  should  be  admitted  upon 
the  same  basis;  namely,  as  the  child  does 


10    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

meet  and  need  tliem  in  liis  life,  even  should 
he  not  go  to  school  at  all. 

A  cross  section  extending  through  all  the 
chapters  represents  the  best  working  basis 
for  the  study  of  the  book.  Social  and  na- 
ture experience,  play,  constructive  activity, 
literature,  reading,  writing  and  the  rest 
must  form  the  ingredients  of  each  daily, 
weekly,  monthly  program.  It  is  the  teach- 
er's task  so  to  select  and  adjust  conditions  as 
properly  to  balance  the  ingredients  so  they 
will  mutually  help  one  another.  This  means 
that  conditions  will  confront  the  children 
in  the  most  'true-to-life  fashion,'  and  will  be 
met  by  them  as  a  life  to  he  lived,  rather  than 
as  a  task  to  be  performed  because  arbitrar- 
ily imposed.  More  will  be  said  later  on  this 
working  out  of  the  children's  purposes. 

It  will  help  the  reader  to  interpret  the 
chapters  and  apply  their  principles  in  his 
daily  schoolroom  practice,  if  he  will  look 
for  illustrations  referring  to  'purposeful  ac- 
tivity' of  the  children,  and  to  the  w^orking 
back  and  forth  in  helpful  fashion  of  the  vari- 


THE  PURPOSE  H 

ous  elements  of  the  school  curriculum.  Such 
cross  references  occur  in:  The  caring  for 
pets,  which  involves  play  and  labor;  the 
dramatization  of  literary  gems;  the  repre- 
sentative play  in  connection  with  social  and 
nature  experience;  the  constructive  activi- 
ties carried  on  in  response  to  social  de- 
mands; the  reading,  writing,  and  number 
done  as  the  result  of  living  social  lives.  The 
list  of  these  projects  might  be  extended 
indefinitely. 

Placing  the  daily  work  of  the  school  on 
the  basis  which  demands  that  the  purposes 
of  the  children  determine  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure and  the  choice  of  material,  provides 
ample  opportunity  for  the  formation  of  good 
*  daily  living'  habits.yThis  is  one  of  the  chief 
aims  of  the  modern  school.  The  children  in 
a  social  school  learn  by  living  with  others 
to  take  part,  to  work  together ;  to  assume  re- 
sponsibility, to  render  mutual  service,  to  sub- 
ordinate selfish  desires  to  the  common  good, 
and  to  value  and  dignify  labor.  Their  in- 
creased interest  in  carrying  out  purposes  of 


12    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

their  own  results  in  greater  effort  on  their 
part  and  secures  more  adequate  results.  It 
thus  simplifies  learning  and  assures  better 
retention  of  what  has  been  learned.  These 
views  are  supported  by  the  laws  of  modern 
psychology  and  are  therefore  strongly  rec- 
ommended. The  principles  upon  which  this 
unified  plan  of  work  are  based  have  been 
restated  whenever  the  school  life  has  been 
approached  from  a  new  angle.  This  seems 
necessary  because  of  their  importance  and 
in  order  that  their  application  may  be  as- 
sured at  all  points. 

This  taking  account  of  children's  pur- 
poses brings  with  it  frequently  a  change  of 
values  in  different  elements  of  the  curricu- 
lum at  different  times.  In  order  to  be  just 
to  all,  a  daily  program  is  necessary.  This 
program  can  and  should  be,  however,  far 
more  flexible  than  the  one  commonly  used. 
While  the  teacher  will  keep  in  mind  the 
equitable  distribution  of  time  for  each  ac- 
tivity in  the  course  of  the  term,  she  may  vary 
her  daily  and  weekly  program  considerably 


THE  PURPOSE  13 

in  order  to  meet  special  situations.  For  ex- 
ample, one  week  or  day  she  may  need  more 
time  for  excursions  or  for  constructive  work, 
or  for  gardening.  She  may  balance  this  an- 
other week  by  throwing  the  emphasis  upon 
the  more  formal  aspect  of  the  program,  by 
recording  through  reading,  writing,  number, 
the  results  of  the  work  of  the  week  previous 
or  by  arranging  for  other  conditions  which 
will  make  these  forms  of  expression  neces- 
sary. The  program  here  suggested  permits 
of  changes  as  indicated  and  yet  provides  for 
all  essential  elements. 

An  adjustable  program,  embodying  cer- 
tain important  principles  of  self  activity. 

First  period  of  morning: 

Disposing  of  wraps.  Exchange  of  greetings. 

Looking  after  individual  duties. 

Exchange  of  news  of  the  day. 

Statement  of  the  problem  for  the  day : — activities 
ipvolved ;  materials  necessary ;  suggestion  or  or- 
ganization; training  of  children  to  take  a  re- 
sponsible part  in  these  directions. 


14    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Second  period: 

Group  activities : 

Language,  observation,  dramatization. 
Reading,  phonics. 
Writing,  spelling. 
Arithmetic. 

Music,   rhythm,    games   grouped   about   the 
central  thought. 

Last  period  of  morning:  Not  longer  than  half  an  hour. 
Individual   activities   towards   definite   purpose, 
either  individual  or  collective. 

First  period  of  afternoon: 

Continuation  of  group  activities. 

Second  period: 

Another  period  for  individual  or  separate  activ- 
ities. Finishing  work,  alone  or  in  groups; 
independent  silent  reading;  watering  plants; 
building  with  blocks,  etc. 

Last  period: 

Summary  for  the  day. 

Restatement  of  the  chief  problem;  progress 

made. 
Assignment  for  future  use.    What  must  we 
do  next?    How  can  we  get  ready  for  the 
next  step? 
Good-byes. 


CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES 

Problems  and  Projects 

Children's  lives  are  full  of  activity. 
They  are  constantly  carrying  out  projects 
and  solving  problems  of  their  own.  In  the 
process  of  living  they  learn  to  think,  because 
of  the  fact  that  in  their  activity  they  are 
most  often  carrying  out  a  definite  purpose ; 
that  in  order  to  do  so  they  must  weigh  and 
judge  among  ideas  and  material  details,  and 
select  from  among  these  the  ones  most  per- 
tinent to  the  fulfillment  of  their  immediate 
end ;  that  in  working  out  their  definite  pur- 
pose, they  meet  difficulties  which  need  to  be 
overcome  before  the  desired  end  can  be  ob- 
tained. (  Read  Dr.  John  Dewey 's  Reasoning 
in  Early  Childhood,  Teachers'  College  Rec- 
ord, Jan.,  1914.) 

Since  this  is  the  method  of  procedure  of  a 
normal  child  or  of  any  normal  human  being 
when  under  no  constraint,  the  school  should 

15 


16    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

adopt  it.  *  Purposeful  activity'  on  the  part 
of  the  children  then  becomes  the  aim  of  the 
school.  The  teacher's  part  is  to  guide  tow- 
ards such  'purposeful  activities'  as  will 
prove  of  greatest  benefit  to  the  children, 
choosing  among  those  directly  available  for 
first-hand  experience. 

In  attempting  to  discuss  the  relative  val- 
ues of  these  activities,  we  are  frequently 
using  the  words  'problems'  and  'projects' 
as  common  terms  of  understanding.  Any 
'purposeful  activity'  determined  upon  and 
carried  to  a  successful  conclusion  becomes  a 
project.  There  are  various  types  of  proj- 
ects. One  of  these  types  involves  mental 
processes  alone,  without  manipulation  of 
material  and  without  the  necessity  of  out- 
ward expression;  this  is  the  problem  type. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  while  this  type 
may  exist  by  itself,  it  is  not  likely  to  do  so 
in  the  child's  world.  On  the  other  hand,  all 
other  types  of  projects  include  the  problem 
type  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  merely  uncon- 
scious responses.    The  process  of  carrying 


CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES  17 

out  projects  and  problems  includes  tliougiits, 
suggestions  and  activities  rejected  as  well 
as  those  finally  selected  as  pertinent.  If  no 
steps  are  taken  toward  the  attainment  of  a 
definite  purpose,  the  mental  problem  may 
remain  in  the  child's  mind,  but  there  is  no 
solution  of  it  and  there  is  no  project  in- 
volved. This  state  of  affairs  is  detrimental 
to  the  child  and  has  existed  too  frequently 
in  the  process  of  formal  education. 

The  problem  is  the  situation  which  de- 
mands the  exercise  of  choice.  In  this  lies 
its  value  for  children,  who  must  be  taught 
to  establish  the  habit  of  thinking  clearly, 
relatedly,  and  to  some  definite  purpose.  Here 
also  lies  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher, 
who  must  provide  conditions  so  that  fruitful 
problems  shall  arise.  Fruitful  problems  are 
such  as  will  demand  solution  because  of  their 
appeal  to  children,  and  because  of  their 
opening  up  to  them  new  and  larger  fields  of 
action. 

The  problem  may  be  very  simple  and  may 
be  solved  by  means  of  a  single  project  of 


18    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

short  duration.  It  may  be  more  complex 
and  demand  a  longer  period  of  time  as  well 
as  necessitate  a  more  complex  project.  The 
project  itself  may  contain  new  problems  to 
be  solved  by  minor  projects.  Thus  arises  a 
linking  of  mental  processes  and  physical  ac- 
tivities all  subsidiary  to  the  main  problem, 
all  subordinate  and  yet  indispensable  to  the 
essential  project,  working  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  the  main  problem.  We  may  think  in 
this  connection  of  the  relation  of  the  twigs  to 
the  branches,  the  branches  to  the  trunk  of 
the  tree ;  all  contributmg  their  quota  to  the 
life  of  the  complete  tree;  the  sap  coursing 
through  all  being  the  connecting  thought 
(which  is  the  main  problem),  by  its  perme- 
ating and  vitalizing  quality,  giving  vigor 
and  growth  to  the  whole. 

The  following  illustration  is  borrowed 
from  Miss  Grace  Brown,  of  Teachers'  Col- 
lege, in  her  talk  on  Dressing  Dolls — a  proj- 
ect. She  shows  how  little  children  will  at 
first  be  content  with  wrapping  the  doll,  put- 
ting on  clothing  regardless  of  arms  and  legs ; 


A.    MAKING  DRILLS  FOR  SEED 
B.   KEEP  UP  THE  SURFACE  MULCH 


.     CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES  19 

how  the  problem  arises  of  making  provision 
for  their  freedom  and  the  next  project  be- 
comes the  carrying  out  of  this  idea ;  how  the 
problem  of  clothing  'to  be  put  on  and  taken 
off'  in  permanent  form  arises  next  and  gives 
opportunity  for  guidance  by  the  teacher  in 
the  project  of  pattern  making,  the  process  of 
fitting,  transferring  to  cloth  and  construct- 
ing the  desired  object ;  how  the  problem  of 
making  pretty  clothing  leads  from  selection 
of  color  to  the  project  of  decoration;  how 
finally  the  making  of  doll's  clothing  sug- 
gests the  problem  of  making  clothes  for 
one's  self  as  'mother  does  it,'  and  of  the 
realization  of  tliis  problem  in  the  project 
of  making  a  dress  for  one's  self  from  the 
pattern  fitted  by  the  teacher.  This  illustra- 
tion serves  not  only  to  make  clear  the  place 
of  the  problem  and  the  project  in  the  daily 
life  of  the  children,  but  also  to  show  the  pos- 
sibility of  starting  on  a  very  simple  basis 
and  leading  to  more  complex  activities  by 
following  the  children's  own  interests  and 
development. 


20    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

In  the  solution  of  a  problem  the  end  may 
be  immediate,  as  is  the  case  when  the  prob- 
lem is  very  simple ;  it  is,  however,  likely  to 
be  more  or  less  remote.  The  ability  to  hold 
in  mind  and  to  work  toward  a  more  remote 
end  should  be  one  goal  achieved  by  children 
through  the  education  given  them.  In  the 
working  out  of  a  project  the  end  always  con- 
sists in  the  fulfilling  of  a  definite  purpose. 
The  acliieving  of  the  purpose  may  cover  a 
long  period  of  time  and  involve  accessory 
problems  and  minor  projects  as  has  been 
pointed  out. 

Illusteation  of  the  Foregoing  from  the 
Field  of  Reading 

Suppose  the  children  have  unconsciously 
absorbed  the  notion  of  the  importance  of 
reading  in  daily  life  by  seeing  their  rela- 
tives read  letters,  the  newspaper,  magazines, 
cook  books,  advertisements,  books,  etc. ;  sup- 
pose reading  material  and  picture  books 
have  formed  part  of  their  environment ;  sup- 
pose they  have  been  read  to  or  told  stories 


CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES  21 

which  they  know  are  to  be  found  in  books ; 
suppose  on  street  cars,  walks,  or  elsewhere 
the  desire  has  come  to  them  to  decipher  for 
themselves  the  large  print  on  brilliantly 
colored  background  accompanied  by  pic- 
tures they  do  not  understand.  The  prol- 
lem  comes  to  them  in  their  own  feeling,  "I 
want  to  learn  to  read."  *  Learning  to  read,' 
then,  becomes  the  large  project  or  definite 
purpose  to  be  worked  out  in  concrete  terms. 
During  the  process,  however,  minor  prob- 
lems arise,  felt  rather  than  clearly  thought 
out  by  the  children.  Among  these  are, ' '  How 
can  I  get  what  I  want  without  asking  older 
people?"  This  problem  shows  a  'felt 
need,'  and  a  proper  time  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  phonics.  Another  problem  felt 
rather  than  thought  out  is:  "How  can  I 
share  what  I  like  unless  I  can  interpret  the 
meaning  of  the  page  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  people  wish  to  listen  to  my  reading?" 
This  introduces  the  most  vital  motive  for 
class  reading,  the  social  motive.  That  it  is 
a  real  one  to  children  is  evidenced  by  the  lit- 


22    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIIVIARY  GRADES 

tie  girl,  who  persistently  followed  her  elders 
about  with  a  book  under  her  arm,  begging 
to  be  permitted  to  read  to  them  and  rejoic- 
ing when  given  the  privilege  to  do  so. 

These  minor  problems  arising  out  of  the 
pursuit  of  the  main  project  demand  lesser 
projects  for  their  solution.  80  the  ramifica- 
tion goes  on  as  has  been  suggested  in  the 
simile  of  the  tree  with  its  twigs  and  branches 
and  the  sap  coursing  through  all.  To  carry 
the  picture  somewhat  farther  in  illustration 
of  the  point  to  follow  in  the  next  paragraph 
concerning  standards  for  the  selection  of 
problems  and  projects,  it  may  be  said,  that 
the  dead  twigs  and  branches,  through  which 
the  sap  no  longer  courses,  and  the  individ- 
ual twigs  at  the  foot  of  the  trunk  which  take 
from  the  strength  of  the  tree  without  con- 
tributing to  its  growth  had  better  be 
chopped  off  so  as  to  conserve  and  concen- 
trate the  life  of  the  whole  in  its  integral 
parts. 

Problems  and  projects  arise  in  connection 
with  the  daily  experience  of  children.    Not 


A.    MAKINC;  OUlt  liKD-lt'iOM    I  I   K\nc  1(1'; 
B.    WEAVING  OUH  UUG;  MAKINCi  MAY  BASKKTS 


CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES  23 

all  problems  or  projects  need  or  should  re- 
ceive attention  at  school.  The  basis  for  de- 
termining which  shall  be  utilized  and  which 
rejected  includes  the  following  questions: 

1.  Does  the  problem  or  project  appeal  to 
the  majority  of  the  group'? 

2.  Is  it  of  sufficient  value  to  the  individual 
to  enable  him  to  make  by  means  of  it  a  dis- 
tinct contribution  to  himself  or  to  the 
group  ? 

3.  Does  it  open  up  to  the  individual  or 
the  group,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
visions  of  new  problems  to  be  solved  and 
projects  to  be  worked  out  in  consequence'? 

4.  Does  it  help  illumine  some  phase  of 
child  experience  or  activity  worth  preserv- 
ing and  fixing  even  temporarily  *? 

5.  Does  it  help  lengthen  gradually  the 
pupiPs  *  interest  span,*  his  power  of  sus- 
tained attention  ? 

6.  May  a  solution  of  the  problem  by  means 
of  a  certain  project,  by  contrast  possibly, 
point  the  way  better  than  a  seemingly  more 
profitable  project  may  do  at  a  particular 


24    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

time  ?  To  illustrate :  If  a  child  has  his  heart 
set  on  solving  a  problem  by  means  of  a  cer- 
tain project,  might  the  experience  gained  in 
doing  this  and  finding  the  result  unsatisfac- 
tory more  than  offset  a  safe  direction 
towards  his  immediate  goal?  (This,  of 
course,  opens  up  the  questions  of  'trial  and 
error  ^;  the  validity  and  extent  of  the  use  of 
this  method ;  the  basis  for  measuring  results 
and  the  weighing  of  values ;  the  economy  of 
time;  the  elimination  of  waste.) 

A  word  as  to  the  complexity  of  projects 
for  young  children.  There  are,  of  course, 
inherent  in  the  experience  of  children  many 
larger  units  which  hold  their  attention  for 
days  and  weeks  intermittently  or  consecu- 
tively. Such  are  the  making  and  using  of 
the  play  house;  the  school-garden  fair,  de- 
pending for  its  success  upon  the  spring  gar- 
dening, the  care  in  the  summer  and  the  fall 
harve^ing;  playing  store;  the  various  so- 
cial functions  growing  out  of  the  utilization 
of  garden  products  and  the  observance  of 
holidays ;  the  camping,  either  as  white  camp- 


CHILDREN'S  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITIES  25 

ers  or  as  Indians  in  the  living  of  that  gem 
for  primary  grades — Hiawatha ;  the  life  of 
primitive  man  as  revealed  in  Miss  Dopp's 
books;  the  farmer's  activities  carried 
through  the  year  in  a  rural  community,  and 
other  activities  gi'owing  out  of  local 
conditions. 

It  is,  however,  not  necessary  or  even  de- 
sirable that  all  projects  undertaken  by  small 
children  shall  be  large  ones.  Their  inter- 
ests are  varied,  their  interest  'spans'  are 
short;  many  of  their  legitimate  desires  are 
very  simple  and  of  short  duration ;  many  of 
them  are  still  enjoyed  and  valued  as  ends  in 
themselves ;  some  of  them  form  a  connected 
series  in  a  larger  unit  held  in  mind  only  by 
the  teacher.  Some  may  cover  merely  a  reci- 
tation or  a  day  or  two  in  point  of  time. 

The  problem  or  the  project  may  precede 
in  point  of  time.  With  little  children  fre- 
quently the  project  precedes  the  problem, 
because  of  the  unconsciousness  of  their  reac- 
tion and  the  immediacy  of  their  purpose. 
Since  this  is  true  and  little  children  solve  a 


26    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

large  number  of  their  problems  by  means 
of  projects  involving  manipulation  of  ma- 
terials, a  separate  chapter  has  been  devoted 
to  constructive  activities.  Play  is  given  first 
place  because  of  its  irrepressibility  and  be- 
cause of  its  value  in  all  child  activity.  It  is 
implied  throughout,  though  it  need  hardly 
be  said,  that  a  school  which  provides  oppor- 
tunity for  purposeful  activity  does  most  to 
build  up  the  health  of  the  children.  This 
question  of  the  health  of  herself  and  her 
children  should  be  one  of  the  purposeful  ac- 
tivities of  the  teacher. 


PLAY  AS  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITY 

A  LARGE  amount  of  thought  and  time  in 
any  primary  school  program  belongs  legit- 
imately to  play.  Play  is  the  spontaneous  ex- 
pression of  child  life;  it  is  child  life.  The 
teacher  who  does  not  weave  play  into  her 
daily  scheme,  fails  to  grasp  a  central  prin- 
ciple and  to  utilize  one  of  the  greatest  as- 
sets in  the  education  of  the  children  under 
her  guidance. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  educational 
value  of  play.  Five  aspects  of  the  question 
are  especially  vital  to  the  success  of  the  plan 
of  work  here  presented.  They  are:  (1)  The 
play  spirit.  (2)  Representative  play.  (3) 
Dramatic  play.  (4)  Play  and  games  as  de- 
termined by  conditions  of  weather  and  other 
nature  experiences.  (5)  Social  and  folk 
games  and  play. 

1.  The  play  spirit.  This  is  an  attitude  of 
mind,  an  outlook  upon  life  present  in  the 
child,  necessary  as  basis  for  a  sound  phil- 

27 


28    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

osopliy  in  later  years ;  as  much  of  an  asset  to 
tlie  grown  person  as  to  the  child.  It  is  the 
element  in  character  which  defies  failure; 
which  insists  upon  playing  the  game  fairly 
and  joyfully,  but  playing  the  game  always; 
which  meets  difficulties,  obstacles,  drudger- 
ies, with  vigor  and  a  determination  to  win, 
but  to  win  always  by  fair  means ;  which  does 
not  minimize  or  ignore  existing  evil,  but 
which  has  faith  in  its  ultimate  overcoming 
by  positive  measures ;  which  adds  the  touch 
of  artistry  to  otherwise  commonplace  lives, 
and  illuminates  them  with  a  ray  of  sunlight 
convincing  to  others  by  its  glow,  its  pene- 
tration, and  its  effects.  This  play  spirit  does 
not  exclude  seriousness,  concentration,  ap- 
plication, reverence,  or  any  of  the  other  sta- 
ble and  basic  qualities  wliich  are  among  the 
ideals  to  be  realized  by  children ;  it  runs  side 
by  side  with  and  through  them  all  as  does 
a  delicate  theme  or  melody  in  a  piece  of 
music  with  orchestral  accompaniment,  bind- 
ing together  the  various  harmonies  into  a 
unified  whole. 


A.    INDIANS 
B.    A  JAPANESE  SCHOOL 


PLAY  AS  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITY        29 

The  play  spirit  then  is  an  essential  which 
should  permeate  the  atmosphere  of  every 
primary  school,  constituting  its  moving  and 
directive  force. 

2.  Representative  play.  This  is  the  play 
indulged  in  by  children  when  reproducing 
the  activities  of  their  environment  in  imita- 
tion of  their  elders  C Olympians,"  as  Ken- 
neth Grahame  calls  them),  and  of  institu- 
tional life  as  they  see  it.  This  furnishes  op- 
portunity for  much  first-hand  contact  and 
for  introduction  to  the  values  which  are  to 
be  established  in  the  field  of  social  experi- 
ences. Playing  house,  store,  fire  depart- 
ment, letter  carrier,  etc.,  with  fidelity  and 
devotion  to  actual  detail,  does  much  to  help 
children  to  an  intelligent  imderstanding  and 
appreciation  of  their  environment,  and  to 
initiate  that  spirit  of  co-operation  which 
must  work  out  through  them  if  they  are  to 
be  happy,  intelligent,  helpful  members  of 
school  and  society. 

3.  Dramatic  play.  Dramatic  play  deals 
with  reproduction  of  experience  gathered  in 


30    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

the  field  of  the  past  (primitive  life,  history), 
in  fields  remote  from  personal  contact  (for 
instance,  geography),  and  in  the  idealized 
realm  of  literature,  be  it  fairy  tale,  folklore, 
myth  or  whatever  form  the  gem  may  take. 
Though  dealing  with  material  different  in 
point  of  time,  space,  or  reality,  dramatic 
play  has  many  of  the  same  values  as  repre- 
sentative play,  which  is  also,  of  course,  dra- 
matic in  its  expression.  It  gives  to  the  child 
free  and  full  expression  through  the  body 
and  the  voice ;  it  enlarges  his  horizon,  exer- 
cises his  imagination,  enriches  his  experi- 
ence; it  gives  him  another's  point  of  view 
and  enables  him  to  project  himself  into  the 
lives  of  others,  thus  developing  understand- 
ing, sympathy,  and  appreciation;  by  'being 
some  one  else'  and  realizing  in  conduct  the 
admirable  qualities  of  another  person,  it 
starts  the  process  of  carrying  these  over  into 
the  child's  own  life  and  establishing  perma- 
nent habits  and  ideals.  This  latter,  of  course, 
is  only  the  beginning  of  a  development  which 
the  wise  teacher  must  encourage  by  else- 


Al,l('i;  IN  WONDERLAND 
A.  The  court  sciiic      H.  Tlie  rabbit  and  Alice 


PLAY  AS  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITY       31 

where  presenting  conditions  which  will  pro- 
vide for  repeated  reaction  along  the  desired 
paths  of  conduct.  In  addition  to  the  above 
values  the  material  used  in  dramatic  play 
lays  the  foundation  for  the  tastes  and  appre- 
ciations of  things  beautiful  and  worth  while, 
which  are  so  necessary  to  the  background  of 
every  human  being. 

4.  Play  and  games  as  determined  by  sea- 
son, location  and  other  geographic  and 
physiographic  conditions.  These  are  im- 
portant leads  to  follow  as  introduction  to 
interpretation  of  nature  experiences.  Fly- 
ing kites;  sailing  boats;  playing  with  bon- 
fires; coasting;  snowballing;  skating;  play- 
ing marbles,  tops,  jiomp-rope,  rolling  hoops ; 
chewing  birch,  sorel,  and  other  plant  ma- 
terials ;  making  daisy  and  dandelion  chains ; 
gathering  materials  for  decoratiofn;  skip- 
ping stones ;  digging  and  planting  gardens ; 
collecting  stones,  leaves,  and  other  treasures ; 
popping  corn  and  chestnuts ;  baking  apples ; 
gilding  nuts;  stringing  cranberries  for  the 
Christmas  tree;  feeding  birds;  caring  for 


32    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

pets  indoors  and  out — all  these  and  many 
more  spontaneous  acthities  are  directly  de- 
pendent upon  physiographic  and  geographic 
conditions.  Why  not  relate  them  to  their 
natural  background,  interpret  natural  phe- 
nomena through  them,  and  lead  on  from 
these  simple  relations  to  further  apprecia- 
tion and  understanding  of  the  beauty,  the 
wonder,  and  the  significance  of  nature  ?  Ef- 
fect and  cause,  mutual  interdependence,  the 
influence  of  geographic  conditions  on  the 
lives  of  people,  the  gradual,  increasing  con- 
trol b}^  man  of  his  physical  environment — 
all  of  these  touch  the  lives  even  of  children. 
In  the  simplest  way  we  can  employ  these 
early  points  of  contact  and  convert  them 
into  more  far-reaching,  ever-deepening,  in- 
creasingly significant  permanent  controls. 

(Illustration: — From  kite  to  aeroplane; 
the  kite  presupposes  wind;  what  else  does 
the  wind  do?  In  what  ways  does  it  affect 
our  lives  ?  How  are  we  controlled  by  it  ?  In 
what  ways  are  we  learning  to  control  or 
utilize  it  ?    This  may  include  much  or  little. 


PLAY  AS  PURPOSEFUL  ACTIVITY        33 

many  steps  or  few,  a  short  or  long  period 
of  time,  according  to  the  maturity,  interests 
and  experience  of  the  children.) 

In  this  way  the  child  will  think  of  and 
deal  with  nature  in  the  spirit  suggested  a 
little  farther  on  in  the  book. 

5.  Social  and  folk  games  and  play.  This 
phase  of  play  needs  to  be  given  no  special 
emphasis  here,  as  it  is  one  of  the  child's  nat- 
ural expressions  in  reacting  to  his  social 
environment.  It  furnishes  a  valuable  means 
for  making  the  school  a  part  of  the  child's 
real  life. 

Play  enters  vitally  into  all  of  the  child's 
problems  and  projects,  and  must  be  taken 
into  account  throughout  the  succeeding 
chapters.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant factors  in  building  up  the  physical  and 
mental  health  of  children. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ACTIVITIES  AS  PURPOSE- 
FUL ACTIVITIES 

In  determining  what  the  constructive 
activities  or  projects  of  little  children  are 
to  be,  the  motive  promptiyig  the  children 
in  the  doing  of  any  special  task  is  of  greatest 
importance,  also  the  fact  that  the  activity 
shall  wholesomely  and  naturally  form  an  in- 
trinsic part  of  the  life  of  the  child  at  any 
given  time.  The  motive  may  vary  consider- 
ably and  yet  be  acceptable.  It  may  be  social 
and  cultivate  the  growing  and  sharing  spirit, 
as  when  gifts  are  made  for  different  seasons 
of  the  year,  or  refreshments  served  for  spe- 
cial occasions  at  school ;  it  may  be  the  expres- 
sion of  the  love  of  beauty  and  show  itself  in 
a  desire  to  decorate  the  schoolroom,  or  to 
make  covers  and  portfolios  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  school  work ;  it  may  answer  a  special 
need,  as  when  costumes,  spears,  helmets  and 
other  accessories  are  simply  made  in  order 
to  lend  to  dramatic  expression  an  added  sense 

34 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ACTIVITIES  35 

of  reality,  or  when  material  is  needed  for 
nature  study ;  it  may  furnish  a  fitting  climax 
to  industrial  studies,  leading  to  an  under- 
standing of  actual  conditions,  as  when  jelly 
or  biscuits  are  made  from  the  fruit  and  grain 
harvested.  Insistence  upon  a  genuine  mo- 
tive there  should  be ;  otherwise  constructive 
activity  loses  its  educational  significance 
and  becomes  barren  of  its  best  results. 

The  love  of  beauty  being  essential  to  all 
appreciation  and  adequate  expression,  it 
may  be  considered  a  dominant  factor  which 
permeates  and  accompanies  all  other  mo- 
tives in  their  attempts  at  realization.  Hence 
the  artistic  training  in  design  and  color 
must  be  kept  in  mind. 

Crude  results  should  be  accepted  and 
given  due  credit,  providing  only  that  they 
represent  the  best  effort  of  the  child  at  any 
given  time,  and  that  conditions  exist  for 
growth.  The  work  should  be  that  of  the 
child,  with  only  so  much  of  the  teacher  in  it 
as  prevents  discouragement  through  unsur- 
mountable  obstacles,  or  standstill  through 


36    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

lack  of  vision.  The  difficulties  must  be 
within  the  capacity  of  the  growing  child  at 
any  given  time. 

The  suggestions  following  have  been  car- 
ried out  in  various  schools  with  little 
children. 

I.  Constructive  activities  growing  out  of  play 
activity. 

1.  Dolls,   doll   clothing,    play-house,    furniture, 

curtains,  rugs,  pictures.    Store.    Camp. 

2.  Carts,  aeroplanes,  engines  and  other  repro- 

ductions of  social  environment,  if  possible 
on  a  scale  large  enough  to  be  actually  used. 

II,  Constructive  activities  growing  out  of  the  social 
motive,  including  to  some  extent  the  thought  of 
utility. 

1.  Gifts  to  parents  and  friends  at  Christmas, 

Easter,  Thanksgiving,  Valentine's  day, 
birthdays,  involving  many  materials  and 
many  possibilities  for  variety. 

2.  Refreshments  served  at  social  gatherings  in 

school,  prepared  and  served  by  the  children, 
who  act  as  hosts, 

(a)  The  making  of  lemonade  and  orange- 
ade. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ACTIVITIES  ,  37 

(6)  The  maMng  of  sandwiches  from  garden 
products. 

(c)  The  popping  of  com  raised  in  the  school 
garden. 

(d)  The  making  of  jellies,  com  bread, 
biscuits,  etc.,  after  observing  the  harvest 
on  the  farm. 

(e)  The  invitations  to  the  meetings. 
Decoration  of  schoolroom  and  care  of  same. 

(a)  According  to  seasonal  event, 

(6)  With  nature  and  other  material. 

(c)  With  products  of  fine  art. 

(d)  Caring  for  plants. 

Useful    articles   for   preservation    of   work; 
prompted  by  social  motive  of  co-operation 
and  motive  of  individual  need, 
(a)  Serapbooks  for  pictures. 
(&)  Portfolios  for  written  work  and  fine  art 
papers. 

(c)  Booklets  for  poems  most  enjoyed. 

(d)  Printing  and  bookmaking  activities  in 
the  simplest  form. 

Useful  articles  and  activities  for  class  and 
home  use. 
(a)  Pencil  boxes,  book  racks,  dust  cloths, 

bean  bags. 
(6)  Iron  holders,  aprons,  caps,  etc. 


38    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(c)  Dusting,    sweeping,    washing,   ironing, 
'                  serving,  carding,  spinning,  weaving,  dye- 
ing, etc. 

(d)  Care     of     personal     property,     class 
property. 

6.  Thought  for  absent  or  sick  children. 

III,  Constructive  activities  growing  out  of  school- 
garden,  excursion  to  farm,  dairy,  trades,  etc. 

1.  The  making  of  butter  and  cheese. 

2.  The  utilizing  of  the  garden  products  for  social 

purposes,  as  has  already  been  suggested. 

3.  The    making    of   bird    houses,    feeders    and 

fountain,  chicken  and  rabbit  coops,  insect 
cages,  etc. 

4.  The  making  of  cases  for  collecting  of  nature 

study  material. 

5.  The  making  of  shadow  stick,  sundial,  weather- 

vane,  thermometer  guard;  labels  for  seeds. 

IV.  Constructive  activities  growing  out  of  desire 
for  dramatic  expression  and  realistic  representation. 
Costumes  and  other  simple  accessories. 

1.  Primitive  life: — attempts  at  reproduction  of 

clothing,    tools,    weapons,    art-pottery   and 
basketry,  shelter. 

2.  Accessories  for  folklore  material. 

3.  Primitive  activities: — grinding  corn,  drilling 

fire,  flaking  tools,  etc. 

4.  Creative  attempts : — pottery,  etc. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  AND  PURPOSEFUL 
ACTIVITIES 

It  may  be  well  to  repeat  liere  that  the  di- 
versity of  reaction  by  the  children  at  differ- 
ent times  will  sometimes  place  the  emphasis 
on  constructive  activities,  at  other  times  sub- 
ordinate these  to  some  other  activity.  It  is 
this  proposed  cliange  of  emphasis  which  in- 
sures the  flexibility  of  the  program,  makes 
possible  a  rational  balance,  and  gives  room 
on  the  one  hand  for  the  initiative  of  the  chil- 
dren, oil  the  other  hand  for  the  guiding  pur- 
poses of  the  teacher.  It  is  this  change  of 
emphasis  which  will  make  it  essential  at 
times  to  deal  with  social  experience  through 
the  channels  of  oral  language,  representative 
play  and  the  playing  of  social  and  folk 
games ;  also  through  the  enriching  influence 
of  literature  in  the  form  of  song,  poetry  and 
story.  Reading,  writing  and  number  take 
their  place  as  forms  of  expression  used  be- 


40    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PREVLVRY  GRADES 

cause  of  the  demand  of  the  situation,  rather 
than  because  of  external  compulsion. 

In  dealing  with  social  experience  much 
the  same  approach  is  made  as  in  dealing  with 
nature  experience.  The  motive  may  be  in- 
herent in  certain  specific  situations,  or  it 
may  show  itself  in  a  desire  consciously  to 
take  stock  of,  follow  up,  and  investigate  ex- 
isting conditions  heretofore  taken  for 
granted.  In  either  case  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  the  material  used  must  depend  upon 
the  experience,  maturity,  and  specific  de- 
mand of  the  children;  it  must  be  subject  to 
such  a  conscious  purpose  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  as  will  lead  to  greater  ability  for  co- 
operation, appreciation,  and  participation 
for  service  on  the  part  of  the  children,  in- 
cluding necessarily  better  understanding  of 
mutual  relationships  and  of  the  needs  and 
expression  of  others  as  well  as  of  ourselves. 

In  connection  with  the  study  a  few  of  the 
features  often  overlooked  have  been  empha- 
sized here ;  others  have  only  been  suggested. 
The  main  thoughts  are  concerned  with: — 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  -41 

1.  The  formation  of  good  habits. 

2.  The  necessity  for  co-operation,  and  the  service  of  aU. 

3.  Adequate  knowledge  for  the  hest  possible  co-opera- 

tion. 

4.  Provision  for  participation  on  the  part  of  the 

children. 

5.  Complexity  of  modern  life  as  compared  with  that  of 

primitive  man  and  animal  life. 

6.  General  needs  of  all. 

7.  The  joy  of  living. 

S.  Art  appreciation  in  our  life. 

* 
So  much  has  been  said  about  community 

life  in  otlier  courses  of  study,  that  it  will 
not  be  enlarged  upon  here.  Among  the  re- 
sults to  be  obtained  are  a  growing  conscious- 
ness of  interdependence  and  of  the  neces- 
sity for  co-operation  and  service  on  the  part 
of  every  individual,  children  included. 

The  Home 

The  following  illustratioli  presents  one 
unit  in  w^hich  the  social  experience  of  first- 
grade  children  in  a  large  public  school  ex- 


42    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

pressed  itself  through  oral  language,  repre- 
sentative play  and  constructive  activity.  The 
problems  arose  primarily  out  of  informal 
talks  with  the  children. 

In  saying  good-by  the  question  was  asked, 
Who  is  at  home  when  you  get  there  after 
school?  This  led  on  to,  If  mother  is  not  at 
home,  what  do  you  do  ?  Who  else  is  at  home  ? 
When  does  father  get  home?  In  this 
way  the  members  of  the  family  were  intro- 
duced. Since  many  of  the  children  had  baby 
brothers  and  sisters  about  whom  there  was 
much  enthusiasm,  the  interest  centred  there, 
and  there  was  spontaneous  expression. 
Among  the  topics  discussed  were  the  follow- 
ing: What  mother  does  for  the  baby;  the 
baby's  needs;  what  I  can  do  for  the  baby; 
what  father  does  with  the  baby ;  what  baby 
does;  baby's  age;  baby's  food;  how  baby 
gets  about ;  bathing  baby ;  dressing  and  feed- 
ing baby;- putting  baby  to  sleep;  plajdng 
with  baby;  and  many  others  of  a  similar 
nature. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  43 

These  discussions  led  to  representative 
play.  The  teacher  had  brought  an  attractive 
boy  baby  with  clothing  and  toilet  articles; 
the  children  brought  their  dolls;  they  also 
used  one  another  for  babies,  and  some  charm- 
ing scenes  were  acted  out.  The  children  were 
most  spontaneous  in  their  reactions,  the 
teacher  helping  only  when  there  seemed  need 
for  her  judgment  in  carrying  out  details  or 
occasionally  in  suggesting  a  new  line  of  ac- 
tion. As  a  rule,  however,  the  children  caught 
the  spirit  quickly  and  reproduced  life  with 
the  baby  most  accurately.  Among  other 
things  they  learned  the  following  jingles  to 
be  played  with  baby's  fingers  and  toes 
respectively : — 

This  little  pig  went  to  market ; 
This  little  pig  stayed  home ; 
This  little  pig  had  roast  beef, 
This  little  pig  had  none. 
This  little  pig  cried,  ''Wee,  wee  wee !  I  can't 
find  my  way  Tiome ! ' ' 


44    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Also : — 
This  little  oow  eats  grass, 
This  little  cow  eats  hay, 
This  little  cow  drinks  water, 
This  little  cow  runs  away. 
This  little  cow  does  nothing  but  just  lie  still 

all  day. 
We'll  whip  her! 

The  children  reported  with  great  glee  the 
effect  upon  their  babies  of  this  play.  All  had 
laughed,  all  but  one  who  was  crying  and 
would  not  be  comforted  by  the  game.  (Good 
pronunciation  and  clear  enunciation  were  at 
all  times  insisted  upon.) 

Representative  play  giving  free  rein  to 
the  imagination  was  encouraged.  Very 
shortly,  however,  some  realistic  touches  ap- 
peared, as  odds  and  ends  of  contributions 
poured  in.  A  hammock,  an  afghan,  soap,  a 
powder  box,  wash  cloth,  towel,  baby  bottle, 
wash  basin  for  bath  tub,  were  among  the 
articles  produced.  Pictures  of  mothers  and 
babies,  and  paper  dolls  representing  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  family  were  also 
brought. 


SOCIAL  EXPEBIENCB  45 

The  next  comprehensive  question  asked 
was,  What  does  mother  do  when  she  is  not 
looking  after  baby  ?  This,  of  course,  intro- 
duced all  the  activities  of  the  home,  a  free 
discussion  of  these  and  again  much  represen- 
tative play.  The  cooking,  washing,  ironing, 
mending,  dressmaking,  housecleaning,  mar- 
keting, all  had  their  share  of  attention,  and 
the  children's  part  as  helpers  in  the  home 
was  discussed  and  demonstrated.  The  activ- 
ities were  carried  out  realistically  with  or 
without  accessories.  Again  articles  were 
brought,  such  as,  a  tiny  apron,  a  dusting  cap, 
a  dustpan,  a  carpet  sweeper,  a  dust  cloth,  a 
wash  boiler,  an  iron,  all  of  which  were  used 
at  the  proper  time.  Among  the  little  rhymes 
learned  were  the  following  by  Christina  G. 
Rosetti : — 

Mix  a  pancake. 

Stir  a  pancake. 

Pop  it  in  the  pan. 

Fry  a  pancake. 

Toss  a  pancake. 

Catch  it,  if  you  can. 


46    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

And: — 

Somebody  didn't  wipe  the  dishes  dry! 
How  do  you  know  ? 
Because  I  saw  the  platter  cry! 
There  were  two  big  tears  on  the  platter's 
face. 

The  latter  rhyme  occasioned  the  drawing 
on  the  blackboard  of  a  large  platter  with 
two  big  tears  rolling  down  its  face  and  the 
corners  of  its  mouth  properly  turned  down  to 
express  the  mood.  (Other  opportunities  for 
blackboard  representation  occur  frequently 
in  such  a  project  as  this.) 

After  much  discussion  and  play  with 
mother  and  I  (the  child)  helping  her,  father 
entered.  He  eats  his  breakfast  in  the  morn- 
ing, kisses  us  good-by  and  goes  to  work.  He 
does  all  kinds  of  things  to  earn  money  to 
pay  for  our  needs  and  desires.  (The  occu- 
pations of  the  fathers  represented  were 
enumerated  and  recorded  in  the  teacher's 
mind  for  future  use  in  community  activ- 
ities.)   Breakfast  must  be  on  time  or  he  will 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  47 

be  late  for  his  work.  Why  must  he  be  on 
time?  Where  must  /  be  on  time?  Why? 
What  does  father  do  when  he  comes  home  at 
night?  (Plays  with  the  baby,  reads  the 
paper,  smokes,  eats  his  supper,  writes  a  let- 
ter.) These  activities  were  carried  out  with 
a  strong  sense  of  their  importance.  One 
father  was  a  letter  carrier,  so  after  writing, 
addressing,  stamping  and  mailing  the  letter, 
it  was  called  for  at  the  letter  box,  carried  to 
the  post  office,  properly  stamped  and  finally 
delivered  at  the  home  to  which  it  had  been 
sent.  This  play  brought  up  two  questions 
to  be  returned  to  at  a  later  time :  What  hap- 
pens to  the  letters  that  go  to  another  city? 
What  is  the  difference  in  the  postage  at  the 
present  time?  (Here  is  an  opportunity  for 
a  visit  to  the  stamp  department  of  the  post 
office  and  the  correlation  of  arithmetic.) 

One  more  step  is  reproduced  to  show  the 
growing  complexity  of  the  situation.  Here- 
tofore one  member  of  the  household  had  held 
the  attention  at  any  one  time.  The  discov- 
ery had  been  made  that  the  families  varied 


48    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

in  size.  (This  had  led  to  some  incidental 
problems  in  comparison,  and  in  addition  and 
subtraction  of  nmnbers.)  This  morning  a 
certain  child's  family  was  chosen  and  she  set 
about  organizing  the  household.  She  got 
the  family  out  of  bed  and  started  their 
process  of  dressing  and  helping.  (Steven- 
son's, A  Birdie  with  a  Yellow  Bill,  Bed  in 
Summer,  or  similar  gems  are  used  to  advan- 
tage here.  Also  the  telling  of  time  and  the 
use  of  the  clock  can  be  learned  readily  in 
this  connection.  This  introduces  valuable 
number  work.)  Breakfast  was  prepared 
with  help,  the  table  set,  the  family  called,  the 
breakfast  eaten.  After  father  left,  the  table 
was  cleared,  the  dishes  washed  and  set  away 
and  other  duties  attended  to.  The  discus- 
sion of  these  problems  preceded  the  play; 
the  children  were  deliberate  in  carrying 
through  the  activities,  unconsciously  empha- 
sizing the  dignity  and  importance  of  the 
tasks ;  each  one  co-operated  as  was  expected 
of  that  special  member  of  the  family ;  some 
interesting  details  of  family  life  were  exhib- 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  49 

ited  in  the  process.  There  is  a  sound  princi- 
ple involved  in  carrying  out  these  activities 
as  realistically  as  possible,  even  to  the  point 
of  having  real  tables  and  chairs,  real  food, 
and  attention  to  the  real  needs  of  individual 
members  of  the  family. 

During  the  course  of  events  a  number  of 
fruitful  problems  leading  to  future  activity 
presented  themselves;  of  these,  only  a  few 
will  be  mentioned.  The  table  for  breakfast 
had  been  set  on  a  chair,  the  family  had  sat 
on  the  floor.  The  need  for  a  table  and  chairs 
was  very  evident.  Here  was  the  teacher's 
opportimity  to  introduce  some  boards,  sticks 
of  wood  (2  by  2's  or  2  by  4's),  some  nails, 
a  hammer,  a  saw,  possibly  a  plane.  What 
better  introduction  to  the  use  of  tools  could 
the  children  have?  The  intrinsic  motive 
for  making  the  table  and  chairs  was  fur- 
nished by  the  need  of  the  children ;  the  gen- 
eral interest  in  the  situation  insured  the  at- 
tention of  all  and  the  concentrated  effort  of 
the  child  taking  his  turn  at  the  work;  the 
necessary  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  tools 


50    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

could  be  acquired  in  the  accomplisMng  of  a 
definite  purpose;  the  result,  though  crude, 
was  the  better  for  the  impulse  which  pro- 
duced it,  and  thoroughly  adequate  for  the 
occasion.  (This  is  a -concrete  illustration  of 
the  principles  so  ably  set  forth  in  Dr. 
Dewey's  little  book,  entitled.  Interest  and 
Effort  in  Education.) 

The  children  had  themselves  planned  to 
furnish  an  apartment,  beginning  on  the 
kitchen  as  the  room  most  used,  taking  as 
their  mediimi  manilla  paper.  (This  medimn 
was  chosen  because  of  its  availability  rather 
than  because  of  its  superiority.  "Wood 
would  have  been  better.)  All  articles  made 
were  to  be  assembled  in  a  furniture  store, 
from  which  the  best  were  to  be  selected,  sold 
at  'real'  prices  and  delivered  at  the  home. 
Other  stores  were  to  be  called  upon  to  fur- 
nish necessary  articles  not  to  be  had  at  the 
furniture  store. 
j  The  second  problem  for  future  thought 
presented  itself  in  the  discussion  as  to  what 
constituted  a  good  breakfast  for  father,  who 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  51 

works;  for  me,  who  goes  to  school;  for 
mother ;  for  baby.  (The  teacher  received  an 
insight  into  the  habits  of  the  home.  How  to 
influence  these  habits  in  a  tactful  and  yet 
effective  way  in  order  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  the  children  is  probably  one  of  the 
teacher's  greatest  problems.)  Milk  was  em- 
phasized as  the  best  drink,  with  cocoa  as  sec- 
ond ;  some  reasons  were  given  for  the  choice, 
without  summarily  dismissing  tea  and  cof- 
fee. Breakfast  foods  and  other  wholesome 
foods  were  praised  and  the  children's  'likes' 
enlisted  in  corroboration  and  in  the  building 
up  of  public  opinion.  (The  same  kind  of 
thing  can  be  done  for  other  foods  and  other 
meals,  gradually  building  up  proper  con- 
cepts in  the  children's  minds.) 
'(  A  third  possibility  for  future  problems 
I  lay  in  following  to  their  sources  the  foods 
used  on  the  home  table.  This  opens  up  a 
vision  of  interdependence  with  which  the 
child  should  become  familiar.  Suggestions 
have  been  made  elsewhere  as  to  the  use  of 
this  *  leading  on'  principle.  . 


52    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

In  closing  this  account  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  one  of  the  most  charming  and  appro- 
priate stories  used  in  connection  with  these 
experiences  was,  Dust  Under  the  Rug,  found 
in  Maud  Lindsay's  book  entitled.  Mother 
Stories. 

Restriction  in  point  of  time  had  led  to  the 
selection  of  oral  language,  representative 
play,  and  constructive  activities  as  the  chan- 
nels of  expression.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
drawing  and  number  entered  the  plan  at 
various  points.  Reading  might  profitably 
have  been  included. 

A  second,  smaller  unit,  involving  social  ex- 
perience was  furnished  by  a  class  of  first- 
grade  boys  who  undertook  to  reproduce  the 
life  of  their  soldier  brothers,  fathers  and 
uncles  at  present  in  camp. 

Again  the  home  was  the  point  of  depart- 
ure. The  interest,  however,  centered  about 
the  soldier  member  of  the  family.  No  at- 
tempt was  made  to  glorify  or  exalt  the  career 
of  the  soldier  above  that  of  other  careers. 
The  idea  was  rather  to  reproduce  his  daily 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  53 

life  in  camp,  to  sliow  the  co-operation  of  tlic 
family  in  supplying  his  needs,  to  bring  out 
his  duties  and  responsibilites,  and  the  seri- 
ousness of  his  obligation  to  serve  the  coun- 
try in  his  own  peculiar  f  asliion. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  children  had  sol- 
diers among  their  near  relatives,  privates 
and  commissioned  officers,  so  the  approach 
was  simple.  The  children  furnished  many 
of  the  details.  The  clothing,  uniforms,  in- 
signia and  other  accessories  were  discussed. 
Some  of  the  children  had  been  to  camp.  A 
tent  was  made  out  of  linen,  natural  color,  the 
children  suggesting  methods  of  making  it 
stand.  A  camp  was  made  out  of  manilla 
paper,  each  tent  bearing  a  tiny  American 
flag.  A  sample  painted  glass  tent  was  pro- 
cured at  the  five-  and  ten-cent  store.  Various 
articles  to  be  used  in  camp  were  contributed 
by  the  children. 

What  do  the  soldiers  do  in  camp  ?  How  is 
camp  life  different  from  life  at  home  ?  How 
can  we  make  the  brothers  or  uncles  more 
comfortable  ?  What  do  they  do  besides  drill, 


54    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

march,  dig  trenches,  etc.  f  These  were  some 
of  the  questions  asked.  The  qualities  neces- 
sary in  a  good  soldier,  the  need  for  co-oper- 
ation and  sacrifice  stood  out  in  the  course  of 
the  discussion. 

Of  course,  the  traditional  appeal  of  sol- 
dier life  to  the  child  cannot  be  entirely  ig- 
nored. It  finds  expression  in  the  making 
and  wearing  of  soldier  caps,  the  marching, 
the  playing  of  'The  Eling  of  France,*  the 
learning  of  such  poems  as  the  first  stanza  of 
Field's,  With  Big  Tin  Trumpet  and  Little 
Red  Drum,  or  Stevenson's,  Bring  the  Comb 
and  Play  Upon  It. 

In  all  seriousness  the  little  six-year-old 
boys  pledged  their  allegiance  to  the  flag  and 
sang  the  first  stanza  of  My  Country  'Tis  of 
Thee.  They  had  caught  vaguely  the  spirit 
the  teacher  tried  to  instill  into  their  experi- 
ence. Under  conditions  where  it  is  possible 
to  reproduce  tent  and  camp  life  in  the  open, 
the  children  will  naturally  gain  more  largely 
and  enter  with  greater  zest  into  the  actual 
activities  undertaken.    The  real  situation  is 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  55 

always  the  one  preferably  to  be  reproduced 
by  little  children  with  attention  to  the  great- 
est possible  accuracy  of  detail. 

While  from  the  point  of  view  of  ethics  and 
early  habit-formation  it  is  wrong  under  any 
circumstances  to  exploit  little  children  by 
making  appeals  through  them  to  the  public 
and  exposing  them  to  the  public  eye,  there 
are  many  ways  in  which  children  can  become 
intelligent  participants  in  the  general  move- 
ment for  thrift  and  true  patriotism.  The 
best  patriotism,  whether  in  war  or  in  peace, 
is  that  which  sets  itself  the  task  of  daily 
honest,  clean,  unselfish  living  with  one's  self 
and  in  one's  home  and  community,  prepar- 
ing one 's  self  from  day  to  day  to  render  ser- 
vice more  intelligently,  and  doing  well  day 
by  day  those  little  acts  which  make  for  the 
betterment  of  the  home,  the  school,  the  com- 
munity. This  is  the  form  of  patriotism 
which  has  been  provided  for  in  this  book. 
It  is  one  of  the  practical  ideals  of  life  to  bo 
accomplished  by  education.  This  form  of 
patriotism   only   will   make    possible    that 


56    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

larger  outlook  upon  life,  which  includes  in 
one's  thoughts  and  actions  people  and  na- 
tion remote  from  personal  contact.  This 
thought  has  been  more  fully  developed  in 
the  chapter  on  The  Ethical  Aspect. 

However,  under  the  present  imusual 
stress  of  the  great  struggle  which  we  have 
entered  upon,  little  children  can  be  taught 
specifically  many  things  which  will  include 
them  in  the  universal  world  thought.  The 
various  activities  in  school  can  deal  in  a 
wholesome,  constructive  manner  with  the 
problems  occupying  every  heart  and  mind. 
To  illustrate  this  concretely,  several  ob- 
servations are  here  recorded. 

1.  In  the  newLincolnSchoolin  New  York 
City  the  children  posted  self-made  war  bul- 
letins on  which  were  printed  in  inch  rubber 
type  some  data  of  daily  interest.  These 
were  used  as  language  and  reading  material. 
Were  they  vital?  Assuredly.  During  the 
Red  Cross  drive  in  the  spring  of  1918  were 
noted  the  following : 

(a)  A  large  poster  showing  an  attractive 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  67 

young  nurse  holding  up  one  end  of  a 
stretcher.  The  words  inscribed  were: 
''Hold  up  your  end." 

(6)  One  of  the  inscriptions  seen  on  the 
streets  read:  ''Give  till  it  hurts."  This  was 
reproduced  in  the  primary  room.  Un- 
doubtedly it  had  been  the  basis  for  conver- 
sation and  had  been  given  interpretation  on 
the  plane  of  child  experience. 

(c)  The  following  poem  was  printed  in 
the  same  manner: — 

The  no-waste  pledge  of  the  loyal  American  child. 

* '  I  will  avoid  all  waste ;  to  this  I  truly  swear. 
I  will  be  careful  of  my  clothes,  and  everything  I  wear. 
No  foolish  pennies  will  I  spend;  but  save,  that  I 

may  give 
To  those  less  fortunate  than  I,  who  find  it  hard  to  live. 
And  dishes  new  I  '11  learn  to  eat  as  far  as  I  am  able ; 
But  one  thing  I  will  never  be ;  that 's  finicky  at  table. ' ' 

(d)  Also: — 

**I  pledge  allegiance  to  my  flag  and  to  the  Republic 
for  which  it  stands. — 
One  nation  indivisible,  with  liberty  and  justice  for 
all." 


58    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(e)  A  new  song  was  given  the  children  to 
be  read  and  sung  for  memorial  day.  It  was 
printed  upon  sheets  of  paper  and  began : 

"And  now  they  lie  beneath  the  flowers." 

(f)  These  children  had  all  contributed  to 
the  Red  Cross  drive;  they  were  interested 
in  the  thrift  stamp  and  the  war  saving 
stamp  campaign.  In  reporting  how  many 
stamps  of  each  kind  they  had  saved,  they 
imconsciously  absorbed  much  practical 
arithmetic. 

(g)  The  children  were  contributing  their 
share  in  handwork  by  making  afghans  for 
the  Belgian  babies.  These  afghans  were 
knit  in  squares  of  pretty  colored  yarn  and 
sewed  together.  They  combined  the  ele- 
ments of  utility  and  beauty,  giving  real  joy 
to  the  children  who  made  them. 

2.  The  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Trade  School  pre- 
sented an  exhibit  of  simply  made,  useful  ar- 
ticles of  service  to  the  soldiers  and  the 
women  and  children  sufferers.     Some  of 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  59 

these  can  be  made  by  the  younger  children. 
A  partial  list  follows : — 

(a)  Gun  cleaners  made  of  oblong  pieces 
of  outing  flannel. 

(&)  Cootie  strings,  crocheted  out  of 
worsted,  3  to  4  yards  in  length. 

(c)  Babies'  caps,  booties,  jackets,  dresses, 
nightgowns,  petticoats.  Children  can  and 
wish  to  make  dolls'  clothes;  why  not  clothes 
for  babies? 

(d)  Afghans  and  quilts. 

(e)  Scrapbooks  containing  pictures  for 
children,  and  pictures,  jokes  and  short 
stories  for  the  soldiers. 

(/)  Wash  cloths;  thread  wound  on  cards. 

(g)  Kit  bags  containing  the  following  ar- 
ticles: Powder,  shaving  stick,  tooth  paste, 
tooth  brush,  wash  cloth,  soap,  pencil,  pads, 
envelopes,  steel  mirror. 

(h)  Articles  of  clothing  for  soldiers  best 
made  by  older  children.  Of  course,  the  Red 
Cross  directions  and  patterns  must  be  fol- 
lowed in  all  of  this  work. 

3.  Gardening  offers  one  of  the  best  op- 


60    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

portunities  for  joining  a  useful,  universal  ac- 
tivity, and  developing  a  spirit  of  patriotism. 
It  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  movement  for 
conservation,  which  is  valuable  at  all  times. 
More  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  garden- 
ing in  a  later  chapter. 

4.  Hero  stories  of  all  types  are  especially 
appropriate  at  the  present  time.  There  are 
many  heroic  deeds  done  in  the  quiet  of  pri- 
vate living  which  should  receive  the  same 
appreciation  as  the  more  obvious  ones  of  the 
soldier's  life.  Children  must,  moreover,  be 
given  the  opportunity  to  do  small  deeds  of 
heroism,  involving  sacrifice,  courage  and 
similar  traits  of  'character,  in  order  that 
they  may  truly  profit  by  these  tales  of  hero- 
ism. It  cannot  be  taken  for  granted  that 
merely  hearing  these  stories  will  have  the 
desired  effect.  Only  by  providing  for  indi- 
vidual response  do  we  secure  the  proper 
functioning  of  the  nervous  system.  (Miss 
Moore,  of  Teachers'  College,  New  York,  has 
recently  gathered  a  valuable  list  of  hero 
stories.) 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  61 

These  illustrations  suffiice  to  show  that 
even  young  children  can  in  numerous  ways 
be  directed  to  participate  intelligently  and 
creatively  in  the  present  great  movement 
towards  a  better  world. 

The  units  here  presented  precede  the 
more  general  suggestions  concerning  the 
function  of  social  experience  in  school  life. 
The  purpose  of  the  work  and  the  channels 
through  which  it  may  find  expression  have 
already  been  indicated.  The  scope  of  the 
subject  matter  from  which  the  teacher  may 
draw  according  to  the  particular  needs  of 
her  children  is  indicated  in  the  succeeding 
pages.  Good  habit  formation  and  intelli- 
gent co-operation  are  among  the  chief  aims. 

Cleanliness  :— 

Why  does  mother  ask  you  to  scrape  your 
feet  before  coming  indoors  ?  To  leave  your 
rubbers  in  the  hall?  Why  not  wipe  your 
shoes  on  a  handkerchief  1  Why  do  you  not 
want  dust  and  dirt  in  the  home  1  What  else 
can  you  do  to  keep  it  out  ? 

Can  you  sweep ?   Dust?  Does  it  make  any 


62    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

difference  how  it  is  done  ?  Will  you  sweep 
up  the  dirt  under  the  desk  ?  Dust  it  ?  (  Give 
demonstration  of  right  and  wrong  way  with 
reasons.  Let  children  do  it.)  Where  is  a 
good  place  to  brush  your  clothes?  Why? 
Why  do  we  not  want  food  and  papers  left 
about?  Why  do  we  burn  rubbish?  What 
do  you  do  wdth  your  garbage  ?  Po  you  ever 
clean  the  garbage  can  ?  How  ?  Why  ?  Line 
it  with  paper?  How  can  we  be  clean  at 
school?  What  do  you  do  with  wet  um- 
brellas?   Clothes?    Why? 

In  what  other  ways  must  we  be  clean? 
This  opens  up  the  topic  of  individual  clean- 
liness: hands,  nails,  teeth,  hair,  bathing, 
clothing,  food,  all  come  in  for  their  share 
of  attention  and  demonstration.  Individ- 
ual praise  for  observance  of  some  of  these  de- 
tails does  much  to  foster  public  and  private 
opinion.  (Daily  inspection  of  children  by 
the  teacher  and  by  children  of  children.  The 
spirit  must  be  helpful  rather  than  critical.) 

How  do  animals  keep  clean?  Cats?  Dogs? 
Birds?    What  can  we  do  for  our  pets  and 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  63 

animals  whicli  help  us  ?  Actual  care  of  pets 
and  responsibility  regarding  them  is  to  be 
commended. 

In  the  application  of  the  lesson  of  clean- 
liness to  school  life,  individual  children  or 
groups  of  children  must  be  given  certain 
duties  and  responsibilities;  care  must  be 
taken  to  follow  these  up  so  as  to  establish 
them  as  habits.  Communicate  with  the 
parents  so  as  to  carry  out  the  same  plan  at 
home  and  accept  reports  from  children  and 
parents  on  the  work  done.  The  field  of  labor 
may  include:  bedroom,  kitchen,  pantry, 
porch,  back  yard,  front  yard,  sink,  ice-box, 
playroom,  closets,  sidewalks,  bureau  draw- 
ers, bathroom,  etc.  A  little  relevant  conver- 
sation will  help  to  establish  ideals,  and  to 
call  attention  to  the  details  to  be  looked  after 
in  each  instance.  The  teacher  must  know 
enough  about  home  conditions  to  suggest  and 
direct  intelligently  in  each  case ;  if  well  done, 
the  work  in  itself  will  establish  intelligent 
and  helpful  relation  with  the  home.  The 
amount  of  constructive  work  actually  ac- 


64    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

complished  and  valuable  knowledge  gained 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  ability  of  the 
teacher  to  handle  the  situation,  and  upon  the 
maturity  of  the  children.  Much  can  be  done 
with  small  children.  Among  the  duties  at 
school  may  be :  cleaning  blackboard,  erasers, 
chalk  trays ;  dusting  desks,  seats ;  sweeping ; 
keeping  paper  picked  up;  keeping  orderly 
book^shelves,  window  sills ;  good  housekeep- 
ing in  desks ;  care  of  cloakroom,  toilet,  halls, 
playground,  yard;  neatness  of  personality 
and  class  work. 

Ventilation : — 

Where  do  you  sleep  ?  Who  sleeps  in  the 
room  with  you?  (Numbers.)  How  far  do 
you  open  your  windows?  Top?  Bottom? 
Both?  Why?  Why  do  many  people  sleep 
out-of-doors  ?  Why  do  we  need  much  fresh 
air?    (This  as  a  beginning.) 

How  many  have  storm-windows?  Why 
should  there  be  a  little  door  to  open? 
Hinges  ?  How  do  you  know  when  you  enter 
a  room  whether  you  ought  to  have  more  air  ? 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  65 

How  will  you  get  it,  so  as  not  to  chill  peo- 
ple, when  they  sit  by  the  window  ? 

Study  the  ventilation  of  the  schoolroom 
until  children  learn  to  know  when  air  is 
bad.  Take  them  into  your  confidence  as  to 
where  and  how  far  to  open  windows,  etc. 
Make  them  conscious  of  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  need  and  a  way  of  ventilation.  Create  a 
demand  for  good  air  and  a  habit  of  procur- 
ing it.  How  do  you  know  that  a  room  is  too 
cold  ?  Too  hot  ?  What  happens  to  you  when 
it  is  too  cold?  Too  hot?  Why  is  it  bad  to 
have  the  air  too  hot?  Too  dry?  How  can 
you  make  it  more  comfortable?  How  do 
you  know  when  it  is  too  moist  ?  Where  does 
the  moisture  settle?  What  does  mother 
have  in  the  house  to  tell  her  when  it  is  warm 
enough  ? 

Teach  the  children  to  read  the  thermom- 
eter. Show  effects  of  heat  and  cold  by  sim- 
ple experiments.  Put  thermometer  indoors ; 
top  of  room ;  floor ;  outdoors ;  in  boiling  wa- 
ter ;  in  ice ;  in  ice  mixed  with  salt  as  it  comes 
in  the  ice-cream  freezer;  in  the  sun;  in  the 


66    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

shade.  Why  do  we  use  it  in  baby's  bath? 
Why  outdoors  ?  Why  in  greenhouse  ?  What 
is  the  difference  between  greenhouse  and 
our  home?  Test  with  thermometer.  Why 
more  heat  in  greenhouse  ?  More  moisture  ? 
How  is  greenhouse  ventilated?  Why  must 
the  gardener  be  careful? 

Must  animals  have  fresh  air  ?  Why  ?  How 
much?    Are  their  homes  well  ventilated? 

What  happens  when  you  have  not  enough 
air?  Try  it.  Hold  mouth  and  nose  shut. 
Why  is  a  bad  cold  uncomfortable  ?  Why  is 
it  bad  to  breathe  through  the  mouth  ? 

How  can  you  help  mother  to  ventilate 
properly  ?   How  can  you  help  in  school  ? 

Plumhing : — 

Why  does  mother  want  you  to  be  careful 
as  to  what  you  throw  into  the  basiQ?  The 
sink?  The  toilet?  Why  does  she  ask  you 
to  wash  out  the  basin  at  once  after  washing 
your  hands?  In  what  rooms  do  you  see 
plumbing?  Why  open?  Why  is  our  plumb- 
ing necessary?    What  would  happen  if  we 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  67 

did  not  have  it?  What  are  traps  fori  (Trace 
with  children  intricacies  of  modern  plumb- 
ing: pipes,  traps,  etc.)  Why  did  the  cave 
man,  the  Eskimo,  etc.,  not  need  plumbing  as 
badly  as  we  do  ?  (Trace  greater  complexity 
and  larger  units  of  our  modern  life  in  com- 
parison to  primitive  man.)  How  should  we 
keep  clean  without  if?  Well?  Comfort- 
able ?  When  anything  is  out  of  order,  who 
repairs  it?  How  do  you  get  the  plumber? 
Why  does  he  get  pay  for  his  work?  Who 
pays  him  ?  etc. 

In  this  and  other  topics  concerning  the 
various  features  of  home  comforts,  the  chil- 
dren should  be  led  to  get  a  feeling  for : — 

1.  The  need  of  care  in  hamdling  our  various  comforts. 

2.  The  functions  of  the  comfort  under  consideration. 

3.  The  deprivation  attendant  upon  interruptions  in 

the  functioning  of  these  comforts. 

4.  The  knowledge  necessary  to  give  them  the  proper 

care, 

5.  The  agent  of  repair;  when  the  function  is  interfered 

with. 

6.  The  element  of  cost  in  repairs,  and  the  factors  in- 

volved in  meeting  the  cost. 


68     PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

In  eacli  case  the  application  must  be  made 
to  school  conditions  as  well,  and  the  children 
organized  to  pi'otect  and  care  for  school 
property.  Some  practical  demonstrations 
may  be  necessary  to  accomplish  this. 

Repeat  at  school  the  line  of  work  sug- 
gested for  the  home.  Determine  tvJiere  old 
flowers,  papers,  remains  of  lunch,  etc.,  shall 
be  thrown.  Throw  responsibility  upon  indi- 
viduals or  groups  of  children;  follow  them 
Tip  to  see  that  they  are  faithful  to  their 
trust  and  establish  the  good  habit.  If  they 
are  delinquent,  let  them  sometimes  call  up 
the  plumber  or  whoever  is  necessary  to  re- 
pair the  damage ;  let  them  under  your  guid- 
ance make  arrangements,  so  they  may  learn 
what  trouble  is  involved  in  carelessness. 
Show  pleasure  in  and  give  praise  for  good 
care  and  faithful  service.  Make  daily  or 
weekly  tours  of  inspection  with  them. 

Lighting : — 

Do  you  know  any  animals  that  can  see 
in  the  dark  ?    What  do  you  do  at  home  when 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  69 

it  grows  dark?  What  kind  of  light  have 
you  ?  According  to  the  kind  of  lighting  chil- 
dren deal  with,  the  following  suggestions 
may  be  pertinent :  Why  must  you  be  care- 
ful to  turn  out  the  gas  completely?  How  do 
you  care  for  your  kerosene  lamps?  What 
does  father  do  when  your  electric  light  burns 
out? 

Why  does  mother  ask  you  to  put  out  the 
light  when  you  are  not  using  it  ?  (Again  the 
question  of  cost,  and  .complexity  of  living.) 
Where  do  we  get  our  Kght?  Follow  up  so 
far  as  possible  the  situation  to  its  source; 
trace  pipes,  electric  wires,  visit  gas  plant, 
determine  source  of  supply,  etc. 

The  hygiene  of  the  eyes  may  be  intro- 
duced by :  Why  do  I  ask  you  to  sit  with  the 
back  to  the  light  when  you  read  ?  Why  must 
you  have  a  good  light  for  working  ?  What  is 
a  good  light  ?  Why  not  let  the  sun  shine  on 
your  book  while  reading?  What  are  can- 
dles good  for?  What  did  people  do  before 
they  had  electric  lights,  etc?  Comparisons 
with  primitive  people,  etc.,  showing  the  ad- 


70    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

vantages  of  our  position.  (Candles  may  be 
dipped.)  Lighting  (proper)  of  schoolroom. 
Let  them  try  experiments,  facing  light,  hav- 
ing light  come  from  different  directions; 
room  too  dark,  too  light.  Shadow  on  paper. 
Proper  holding  of  book;  distance  from 
eyes,  etc. 

Can  these  lights  (whatever  they  are)  be 
used  for  anything  besides  lighting  purposes  ? 

Heating : — 

How  do  you  keep  warm?  Let  children 
enumerate  sources  and  means  of  heating 
they  know,  including  the  sun.  As  with  pre- 
vious topics  go  into  the  question  of  compara- 
tive efi&'ciency,  amount  of  care  needed,  source 
of  supply,  means  of  obtaining,  cost — abso- 
lute and  relative  at  different  times  of  the 
year — means  of  paying  for  it,  who  looks 
after  it,  amount  of  labor  involved.  Make  ap- 
plication to  heating  system  of  schoolroom. 
What  can  be  children's  share  at  home? 

After  this  a  comparison  with  the  life  of 
primitive  man,  the  Pilgrims  of  Thanksgiv- 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  71 

ing  acquaintance  and  a  recognition  of  the 
handicaps  of  animals,  will  prove  of  value. 
By  continuously  binding  together  the  pres- 
ent-day life  of  the  child  with  that  of  other 
people  on  the  one  hand  and  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  animal  world  on  the  other,  a  con- 
sciousness will  gradually  be  evolved,  which 
will: — 

1.  Realize  the  universal  needs  of  living  creatures. 

2.  Account  for  variations  on  the  basis  of  differing  local 

physical  and  social  conditions. 

3.  Understand,  tolerate,  respect  and  sympathize  with 

the  efforts  of  all  towards  ietterment. 

4.  Lend   a    willing   hand   in   the   necessary   service 

toward  the  desired  goal. 

This  attitude  of  mind  thus  trained  is  one 
of  the  most  necessary  factors  in  the  complex- 
ities of  modern  everyday  living,  be  it  on  the 
basis  of  individualism,  nationalism,  or  in- 
ternationalism. It  is  also  the  indispensable 
basis  for  the  study  of  geography  and  his- 
tory. While  the  child  is  unconscious  of  this 
purpose,  the  teacher  should  have  it  in  mind 


72    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

constantly  and  use  every  opportunity  to 
realize  it  in  the  reactions  of  the  pupils  under 
his  care.  (This  attitude  of  mind  is  of  neces- 
sity slow  in  its  growth,  but  indispensable  to 
modern  democratic  thinking  and  conduct.) 

The  danger  from  fire  may  be  pointed  out, 
and  ordinary  measure  for  prevention  em- 
phasized. Why  not  leave  matches  about? 
Why  cover  the  grate  fire  with  ashes  before 
going  to  bed  *?  Why  not  blow  out  gas  stove  ? 
Why  put  out  your  fire  when  camping? 
When  burning  leaves,  etc.?  How  build  or 
start  a  fire?  Why  not  with  kerosene  or 
gasoline?  For  what  other  purposes  do  we 
use  fire? 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  illustrations  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  continue  indefinitely 
in  the  same  manner.  Hence  suggestions  re- 
garding the  study  of  food,  shelter  and  cloth- 
ing are  given  mainly  in  outline  form,  to  be 
handled  by  the  teacher  at  her  discretion  and 
from  the  same  point  of  view.  These  out- 
lines may  be  adapted  to  any  of  the  first  three 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  73 

grades,  and  used  as  a  whole  or  in  part  as 
desired. 

Eeading,  writing,  industrial  and  fine  art, 
number,  music,  etc.,  will  grow  out  of  the 
study  of  so<iial  environment.  Children  may 
keep  a  simple  diary  of  interesting  daily  or 
weekly  events;  they  may  record  duties  as- 
signed to  them ;  also  data  learned,  dates  of 
birthdays  and  other  festivals ;  they  may  keep 
account  of  individual  or  class  expenditures ; 
they  may  list  school  needs,  requests  or  rec- 
ipes tried  or  saved  for  future  trial.  Bulle- 
tins may  be  written  or  printed  and  posted, 
giving  desirable  or  necessary  information  to 
the  social  whole,  such  as  directions  for  ex- 
cursion, time  of  meeting,  program  for  morn- 
ing exercises,  current  events,  etc. 

Children  may  read  to  one  another  mate- 
rial brought  from  home  or  assigned  by 
teacher  for  special  purposes  or  occasions. 
They  may  tell  stories  heard  or  read  at  home. 
Number  will  come  out  of  projects  in  indus- 
trial arts  connected  with  study  of  social  en- 
vironment ;  for  instance,  in  utilizing  the  ma- 


74    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

terial  of  garden,  farm  or  excursion  to  store, 
the  elements  of  expense,  amounts  in  recipes, 
winter  and  summer  prices,  measurements 
and  other  factors  will  enter  into  the  neces- 
sary calculations.  Number  games,  also,  can 
be  played  in  connection  with  everyday  so- 
cial intercourse. 

These  are  only  a  few  suggestions,  all  of 
which  must,  of  course,  be  carried  out  in  the 
simplest  way.  Many  useful  and  pretty  ar- 
ticles may  also  be  made  to  help  the  social 
work  at  home  and  at  school.  (For  further 
material  along  this  line  see  chapter  on  Con- 
structive activities.) 

'Occupations,  Expenses,  Allowances,  Saving, 

etc. : — 

Summary  of  comforts  and  conveniences 
which  help  to  make  a  modern  home. 

What  is  necessary  to  keep  our  home  ? 

What  does  mother  do  towards  keeping  up 
the  home  ? 

What  does  father  do  towards  keeping  up 
the  home? 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  75 

What  expenses  does  father  have  in  con- 
nection with  the  home? 

What  are  some  of  his  own  expenses  ? 

What  are  some  of  mother's  expenses? 

What  are  some  of  your  expenses  ? 

What  can  you  do  to  help  keep  up  the 
home  ? 

What  would  become  of  you  if  father  and 
mother  did  not  work  ? 

Have  you  ever  heard  father  or  mother  say, 
'*We  cannot  afford  this"? 

What  do  they  mean  ?  How  do  they  know 
how  much  to  spend  on  food?  Clothes ?  Heat? 
Rent?  etc. 

Are  there  any  times  when  you  need  more 
money  than  usual?  (Christmas,  vacation, 
birthdays,  illness,  etc.) 

How  does  father  manage  to  have  money 
for  this  ?  Would  you  like  to  use  money  ?  To 
save  some?  Can  you  do  anything  to  earn 
money? 

By  applying  this  idea  to  school  life,  thrift 
clubs  and  savings  accounts  can  be  started 
with  small  children.     War  saving  stamps 


76    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

and  certificates  may  be  bought.  In  many  in- 
stances the  parents  will  be  willing  to  give  a 
small  weekly  allowance;  the  spending  and 
saving  of  this  can  be  supervised.  A  certain 
part  may  go  for  necessary  expenses ;  a  por- 
tion may  be  saved ;  and  a  small  portion  may 
be  allowed  for  personal  indulgence  or  for 
giving  pleasure  to  others.  The  children  are 
taught  to  keep  accounts  in  a  very  simple  way 
and  to  be  responsible  for  certain  needs  of 
their  own,  such  as  pencils,  erasers,  rulers, 
paper,  etc.  They  will  thus  learn  to  value 
property  more,  to  know  how  large  a  share 
can  profitably  go  for  mere  pleasure  for 
themselves  or  others,  and  by  balancing  ac- 
counts weekly  to  utilize  some  practical  proc- 
esses in  the  handling  of  number. 

What  does  your  father  do  to  earn  a  liv- 
ing? At  what  time  does  he  start?  When 
does  he  get  home  ? 

Go  into  occupations  as  much  as  circum- 
stances will  justify ;  this  leads  out  into  com- 
mimity  life  and  the  interdependence  of  its 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  77 

members — the    next    large    topic    to     be 
discussed. 

Can  he  get  to  his  work  at  any  time  ?  Why 
not?  Must  mother  be  on  time?  When? 
You  ?  Regularity  and  promptness  being  two 
of  the  necessary  accompaniments  of  every- 
day adult  life,  the  child  may  be  led  to  see  the 
application  to  his  own  life  as  regards  school 
attendance,  appearance  at  meals,  doing  of 
chores,  etc.  The  plumber,  electrician,  coal 
man,  grocer,  and  others  have  already  en- 
tered the  child's  home  life.  Now  is  the  time 
to  follow  them  into  their  own  surroundings 
to  find  out  how  they  spend  their  time,  how 
they  live,  what  some  of  their  expenses  are, 
on  whom  they  depend  and  how. 

FOOD 
Based  on  nature  and  social  experience. 

(These  studies  necessarily  overlap  with  outlines  on 
nature  experience.  They  also  presuppose  excursions, 
whenever  this  can  be  made  possible.) 

I.  The  home  table. 
1.  As  supplied  from  garden,  farm  and  store. 


78    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

2.  As  supplied  from  other  sources.  Geographical 

distribution. 

Use  of  globe  and  maps.     (This  for  third 
grade.) 

(a)  State. 

(b)  Other  portions  of  same  country. 

(c)  Foreign  countries. 

3.  Medium  of  trade.    Trades  people,  etc.  Money- 

values. 

4.  Preparation  for  market. 

5.  Shipping  to  home  town. 

II.  Garden  products.    Children's  gardens  or  home 
garden. 

1.  Kinds. 

2.  Parts  of  plant  used.     Study  of  plant  as  a 

whole  and  function  of  each  part.     Typical 

examples. 

(a)  Roots. 

(&)  Stems. 

(cK  Leaves. 

(d)  Fruit. 

(e)  Seed. 

(/)  Flower.    Is  it  ever  used  for  food ;  what 
is  its  use  ? 

(1)  Botanical.    (To  the  plant.) 

(2)  Esthetic.    (Tons.) 

3.  Care  given  to  plants  during  season  of  growth. 

(a)  Irrigation. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  79 

(b)  Protection  from  insects. 

(c)  Protection  from  weeds. 
id)  Protection  from  weather. 

4.  Harvesting. 

(a)  Method  of  procedure. 

(6)   Time  of  year. 

(c)  Storing  and  shipping. 

5.  Market  price.       ^  '    "- 

(a)  Correlation  with  arithmetic.  (This 
has  several  times  previously  been  sug- 
gested in  connection  with  the  cost  of  up- 
keep.) One  of  the  larger  projects. 

(h)  Basis  for  awarding  of  prizes  at  fairs. 

(c)  The  County  fair  and  the  School  fair. 

6.  Simple  methods  of  preparing  for  the  table; 

cooking,  canning,  preserving,  drying.  Try 
---— jmt^one  or  the  other. 
III.  The  Farm.  ~ 

1.  Products  of  agriculture.  Treated  similarly  to 

topic  on  garden  products. 

2.  Live  stock. 

(a)  Uses;  meat;  dairying;  hides;  etc. 
(6)  Care    needed;  shelter;    food;    cleanli- 
ness ;  etc. 

(c)  Food  derived  from  live  stock. 

(d)  Methods  of  preparation  and  their  re- 
lation to  the  market. 


80    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

3.  Poultry.     Treated  similarly  to  topic  on  live 
stock. 

IV.  The  food  of  our  domestic  animals. 

V.  The  food  of  primitive  man.    (Comparison  with 
our  own  food.) 

During  the  winter  when  nature  material 
is  more  difficult  to  obtain,  the  grades  may 
take  up  a  study  of  the  topics  of  food,  shelter 
and  clothing.  A  vital  connection  is  here 
made  with  the  industrial  arts  department, 
since  the  children  learn  to  weave,  to  invent 
devices  for  improving  their  looms,  to  make 
and  color  simple  and  appropriate  designs, 
and  can  be  taught  the  processes  of  spinning 
and  dyeing  with  vegetable  dyes  and  various 
roots  and  berries.  In  this  way  they  enter  into 
the  experience  of  the  primitive  people. 

Why  do  we  live  in  houses?  Of  what  is 
your  house  made ?  Your  neighbor's?  Most 
of  the  houses  in  your  town?  Why?  What 
other  materials  are  used  ?  What  are  some  of 
the  features  conunon  to  every  house  ?  What 
is  done  first  ?    How  is  the  foundation  made  ? 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  81 

Where  is  the  lumber  obtained?  How  does 
it  get  to  the  lumber  yard  ? 

Such  questions  as  these  create  a  need  for 
knowing  the  source  of  supplies. 

Excursions  to  houses,  in  various  stages  of 
construction,  to  the  lumber  yard,  the  brick 
yard,  the  stone  quarry,  should  be  undertaken 
whenever  possible,  for  one  object  lesson  of 
this  kind  outweighs  in  value  many  oral  reci- 
tations in  the  classroom.  Incidentally,  some 
valuable  material  for  related  arithmetic  may 
be  gathered.  Cement  blocks  and  mortar  may 
be  made  and  a  typical  house  may  actually 
be  constructed  by  the  children.  A  playhouse 
using  boxes  or  limiber  may  be  constructed. 
Furniture  for  dolls  may  be  constructed  of 
wood  with  real  tools,  teaching  the  processes 
of  hammering,  sawing,  planing,  etc.  Other 
furnishings  will  then  need  to  be  made. 

Next  may  come  a  study  of  the  needs  and 
adaptations  of  primitive  peoples,  including 
the  Tree-dwellers,  Cave-man,  Cliff-dwellers, 
Lake-dwellers,  the  Eskimo,  the  Indian,  and 
the  shepherd  of  the  plains. 


82    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  following  outline  shows  one  way  in 
which  the  topic  of  shelter  may  be  ap- 
proached by  the  children,  and  related  to  na- 
ture experience. 

SHELTER 

I.  Modem  homes. 

1.  Purpose. 

{a)  Protection  from  weather. 

2.  Construction,  arrangement  and  furnishings. 

3.  Material  used  and  methods  of  obtaining  it. 

(Third  or  fourth  grade.) 
(ff)  Lumbering. 
(&)  Brick-making, 
(c)  Quarrying. 

(1)  Marble  and  granite. 

(2)  Sandstone. 

(3)  Limestone. 

(4)  Shale. 

II.  Animal  shelter.  (Comparisons  with  our 
homes.) 

1.  Purpose. 

(a)  Protection  from  weather. 
(&)  Protection  from  enemies. 

2.  Material   used   introducing   specific   animals 

such  as  the  beaver,  bird,  etc. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE^  83 

3.  Method  of  construction. 
III.  Shelter  for  primitive  man.  Specific  instances. 
(Comparison  with  our  homes.) 

1.  Purpose. 

(a)  Protection  from  weather. 
(&)  Protection  from  enemies. 

2.  Location  and  reasons  for  same. 

3.  Material  and  reasons. 

4.  Method  of  construction. 

5.  Furnishings. 

The  first  topic,  among  others,  necessitates 
nature  study  lessons  on  the  principal  kinds 
of  building  stone,  the  ability  to  distinguish 
each  one  from  the  others,  and  the  recogni- 
tion of  each  in  the  field. 

The  topic  of  clothing  is  approached  in  very 
much  the  same  way,  animal  life  and  primi- 
tive people  known  to  the  children  furnishing 
examples  of  purpose  and  adaptability  to 
physical  conditions,  and  of  available  mate- 
rial. In  how  far  doeg  our  clothing  respond 
to  the  same  need  as  that  of  primitive  people  ? 
What  element,  unknown  to  early  man,  fig- 
ures largely  in  our  choice  of  clothing  ?  Is  the 


84    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

factor  of  expense  more  or  less  legitimate  in 
the  ehoice  of  clothing  than  the  original  fac- 
tor of  adaptability  ?  These  are  some  of  the 
thoughts  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  which 
accompany  the  inquiry  into  the  purpose,  ma- 
terial and  construction  of  the  clothing  in 
each  individual  case.  Wool,  silk,  fur,  leather, 
cotton  and  linen  are  the  materials  discussed 
with  the  children  in  connection  with  their 
own  clothing.  The  relative  warmth,  weight, 
expense,  and  the  process  of  preparation  are 
studied,  and  specimens,  showing  different 
stages  of  preparation,  are  used  and  illus- 
trated. An  interesting  collection  may  be 
made  by  encouraging  the  children  to  bring 
samples  in  different  colors  and  textures  of 
the  various  materials,  and  mount  these  on 
cards.  A  good  opportunity  is  here  offered 
for  cultivating  the  sense  of  touch,  and  sev- 
eral interesting  touch  games  may  be  played. 
Some  simple  tests  determining  the  genuine- 
ness of  woollen,  cotton  or  silk  fabric  may  be 
made. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  85 

CLOTHING 

Based  on  nature  experience  and  studies  of  primitive 

man. 

I.  The  people  we  live  with. 

1.  Purpose  ol  clothing. 

(a)  Protection. 
(6)  Beauty. 

2.  Material  used. 

(a)  Collecting  instinct  of  children  utilized 
in  making  collection  and  mounting  same. 

(6)  Kinds:  Cotton,  silk,  wool,  leather,  fur, 
rubber  and  linen. 

3.  Adaptation  and  changes  in  material  accord- 

ing to: 

(a)  Climate. 

(6)  Style. 

(c)  Financial  resources. 

4.  Sources  of  material  and  geographical  distri- 

bution.    (Third  grade.) 

(a)  Animal. 

(&)  Plant. 
(As  a  rule  the  materials  derived   from  animal 
sources  are  of  greater  interest  to  little  children  than 
those  derived  from  plants.) 

5.  Methods  of  obtaining  material,  leading  to 
study  of  industries  in  so  f^r  as  they  appeal  to 
developments  of  third  grade  child. 


86    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(a)  Method  employed  as  a  rule  leading 
from  finished  product  back  to  source,  on 
the  principle  of  leading  from  the  known 
to  the  unknown. 
(&)  Wherever  the  close  relation  of  nature 
study  demands  it,  the  order  may  be  re- 
versed. For  instance,  the  study  of  the 
sheep  of  the  neighborhood,  may  lead  to 
a  study  of  the  wool  industry, 
(c)  Industries  developed. 

(1)  Silk. 

(2)  Fur. 

(3)  Wool. 

(4)  Leather. 

(5)  Cotton. 

(6)  Linen. 

(7)  Rubber. 
6.  Experimentation. 

(a)  Spinning  and  carding. 
(6)  Weaving. 

(c)  Dyeing  with  vegetable  dyes,  roots,  ber- 
ries, etc. 

(d)  Designing    in    pencil,    crayon,    water 
color. 

(e)  Dressing  of  dolls  to  represent  primitive 
people. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  87 

(/")  Application  of  these  processes  in  in- 
dustrial and  fine  arts  in  the  daily  life  of 
the  children. 

II,  Animal  coverinpf,  typical  and  specific  examples, 

1,  Need  for  covering. 

2.  Kinds:  fur,  feathers,  hair,  etc,  (Illustrations,) 

3,  Adaptation  to  seasons, 

(a)  Thickness. 

(&)   Color. 

(c)  Habits  other  than  change  in  covering, 

4.  Differences  in  young  and  old, 

III.  Primitive     man.     (Comparisons     with     our 
clothing.) 

1.  Need  for  clothing. 

(a)  Protection, 

(6)  Beauty,  leading  to  thought  of  instinct 
for  decoration, 

2.  Material  used. 

(a)  Adaptation  to  environment. 
(6)   Conquest    of    environment,    by    intro- 
duction of  textile  arts. 

3.  Sources  of  materials  and  methods  of  obtain- 
ing, leading  to  picture  of  daily  life  of  people 
involved,  distribution  of  work,  etc. 

4.  Stability. 

(a)  Different  clothing  for  different  occa- 
sions, festivals,  dances,  etc. 


88    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(b)  Fashion    as    compared    with    modem 
ideas. 

SUMMARY 
Condensed  outlines  for  the  study  of  social  experi- 
ences covering  the  entire  field. 

A.   THE   HOME 

I.  Members  of  home. 

1.  Relations  to  one  another. 

2.  Occupations,  expenses,  allowances,  savings. 

3.  Dependence  upon  people  outside  the  home. 

II.  Hygiene,  sanitation  and  general  comforts. 

1.  Cleanliness. 

2.  Ventilation. 

3.  Plumbing. 

4.  Lighting. 

5.  Heating. 

6.  Labor-saving  devices;  machines;  electrical 
appliances,  etc. 

III.  Necessities. 

1.  Food. 

2.  Shelter. 

3.  Clothing. 

4.  Beauty  of  home. 

B.    THE   COMMUNITY 

I.  The  private  workers. 

1.  Who  come  into  the  home  to  serve  ua. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE  89 

2.  To  whom  we  go  to  be  served. 

3.  Whom  we  serve. 

II.  The  public  servants. 

1.  Letter  carriers. 

2.  Policemen. 

3.  Fire  department. 

4.  Street  cleaning  department,  etc. 

III.  Institutions. 

1.  School  and  schools. 

2.  Church   and    Sunday    schools;    Y.W.C.A., 
etc. 

IV.  Communication,  present  and  past.  ^ 
|«  Telephone,  telegraph,  mail,  etc. 

V.  Transportation. 

1.  Present.  The  horse,  automobile,  street  car, 
railroad,  boat,  etc. 

2.  Past — according  to  studies  made  of  prim- 
itive man. 

3.  Comparisons,  working  back  and  forth  from 
pas,t  to  present  and  present  to  past. 

--^ ,  c.    THE  FARM 

I.  The  animals  of  the  farm. 

1.  How  they  live  and  what  they  do. 

2.  The    care    that    the    farmer    gives    them. 
Reasons. 

3.  Why  does  he  keep  them?     They  are  ex- 
pensive. 


90    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

II.  The  occupations  of  the  farm. 

1.  The  work  with  the  soil  and  the  growing  of 
products. 

2.  The  milk,  cream,  cheese  and  butter. 

3.  The  raising  of  poultry. 

4.  The  work  in  the  house;  cooking  for  the 
farm  hands,  etc. 

5.  The  hauling  and  selling. 

6.  The  winter  work. 

III,  Interesting  and  useful  things  on  the  farm. 

1.  The  pump  or  well. 

2.  The  silo. 

3.  The  cream  separator. 

4.  The  machinery,  etc. 

5.  The  elevator. 

IV.  Comparison  of  the  farm  with  village  and  city 
homes. 

1.  Farmhouse  and  convenience. 

2.  Means  of  getting  about. 

3.  Roads. 

4.  The  food  we  eat. 

5.  The  noises  we  hear. 

V,  What  does  the  farmer  have  to  do  with  the  rest 
of  the  world  ? 

1.  What  he  furnishes. 

2.  How  he  gets  it  to  its  destination. 


SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE,  91 

3.  What  he  receives  in  return. 

4.  How  his  life  compares  with  that  of  trades 
people  we  know ;  of  city  people,  etc. 

D.    OUR  SCHOOL 

-  This  topic  must  be  adapted  to  local  conditions.   It 
might  profitably  head  the  list  of  topics. 

E.    OTHER  FEATURES  OF  LOCAL  INTEREST 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT 

The  question  has  been  asked,  *'  Is  it  ethi- 
cal to  care  more  for  those  near  one  than  for 
those  more  remote T'  Aside  from  the  fact 
that  for  reasons  to  be  stated  it  is  more  usual 
to  do  so,  the  answer  would  seem  to  be  'Yes' 
and  *No/  'Yes,'  because  first-hand  contact 
with  people  is  the  only  basis  for  personal  ex- 
perience with  them  and  first-hand  contact 
with  personal  experience  is  essential  to  the 
development  of  the  elements  in  character, 
such  as  sympathy,  understanding,  willing- 
ness to  share,  readiness  to  serve  and  to  co- 
operate, controlled  emotion,  directed  intelli- 
gence, conscious  team-work  and  others, 
which  make  up  the  complexes  of  ethical  con- 
duct. The  fuller  and  richer  the  individual 
experience,  the  greater  are  the  possibilities 
for  fondness  of  those  near  at  hand,  for  the 
transference  of  this  'caring'  to  the  more  re- 
mote, and  for  the  expression  of  this  'caring' 
in  conscious  co-operative  effort.    Moreover, 

92 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  93 

only  through  first-hand  contact  and  personal 
experience  can  the  projection  come  of  the  re- 
sponse to  and  the  co-operation  with  a  more 
remote  group,  a  wider  field  of  ideas,  a  larger 
vision  and  greater  mutual  helpfulness. 

The  answer  to  the  question  asked  will  be 
*No,'  if  the  response  becomes  limited  solely 
to  the  personal  contact,  if  it  excludes  and 
hinders  the  expansion  indicated,  more  still, 
if  it  results  in  an  alien  attitude  of  mind  and 
action  towards  those  groups,  ideas  and  \i.- 
sions  which  lie  outside  the  close  contact  and 
personal  experience. 

We  Americans  have  a  peculiar  and  imique 
privilege  and  responsibility  with  regard  to 
both  the  close  contact  and  the  larger  vision. 
The  immigration  question  is  pre-eminently 
our  problem.  Nowhere  else  is  there  such  a 
medley  of  peoples  welded  into  one  whole. 
To  make  this  whole,  not  homogeneous  alto- 
gether, but  organically  unified,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  type  most  to  be  desired,  while  en- 
couraging variations  which  will  preserve 
and  perpetuate  all  valuable  ingredients,  is 


94    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

the  supreme  ethical  problem.  Much  has 
been  done  by  the  public  school  in  the  assim- 
ilation of  this  heterogeneous  material; 
more  needs  to  be  done.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  that  our  ideals,  purposes,  customs 
and  practices  are  transmitted  to  the  new- 
comer and  conditions  are  provided  so  that 
he  may  normally  react  and  make  them  his 
own,  another  aspect  heretofore  greatly  neg- 
lected needs  to  be  emphasized,  if  family  life 
is  not  to  be  seriously  endangered,  and  if 
much  of  the  rich  social  inheritance  is  not  to 
be  irredeemably  lost.  The  point  is  this ;  If 
the  children  are  thoroughly  assimilated  and 
the  parents  remain  foreign  in  thought  and 
action,  there  arises  an  unavoidable  tension 
and  friction  between  the  two  generations 
which  is  as  disintegrating  to  the  children 
and  the  group  as  a  whole,  as  it  is  tragic  for 
the  older  generation.  There  are  two  ways 
of  avoiding  this  result,  both  of  which  are 
equally  imperative:  (1)  The  parents,  too, 
must  become  imbued  with  the  ideals,  pur- 
poses, customs  and  practices  of  their  new 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  95 

country.  (2)  The  ideals,  purposes,  customs 
and  lore  of  the  groups  to  which  the  parents 
belonged  must  take  their  legitimate  place 
in  the  home  and  school  life  of  the  children, 
and  bring  to  them  and  to  their  companions 
the  special  contribution  each  of  them  has  to 
give.  If  properly  utilized  this  contribution 
may  become  in  school  a  strong  socializing 
agent  and  the  stepping  stone  by  means  of 
which  the  children  will  make  the  transition 
in  thought  and  action  from  the  first-hand 
contact  of  home,  school  and  community  to 
the  larger  vision  of  appreciation  of  and  co- 
operation with  all  human  groups.  To  do 
this  is  the  function  of  geography  and  his- 
tory teaching. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  the  higher  grades  of 
the  elementary  school  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy, history,  literature,  art,  music,  if 
presented  on  the  basis  of  universal  appre- 
ciation, of  worthy  achievement,  will  have  a 
share  in  the  developing  of  this  larger 
consciousness  to  the  extent  to  which  it  de- 
mands and  fosters  it  as  a  liahiftial  attitude 


96    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIJMARY  GRADES 

of  mind.  The  possibilities  are  great  indeed. 
What,  however,  has  this  discussion  to  do 
with  early  childhood?  The  following  inci- 
dent may  make  clear  the  connection ; 

A  group  of  college  students  in  child  lore 
were  sent  to  a  'Baby  welfare  exhibit,'  repre- 
senting the  needs  of  children  below  the  age 
of  two  years.  The  suggestion  was  made  that 
they  render  a  critical  constructive  report  of 
the  significance  of  the  exhibit.  They  re- 
turned enthusiastically  praising  the  exhibit 
on  the  side  of  physical  hygiene.  ' '  But, ' '  was 
the  question  asked,  "Why  was  there  noth- 
ing to  indicate  the  importance  of  caring  for 
the  mental  hygiene  of  little  children*?  It  is 
clear  to  every  observer  of  children  even  un- 
der the  age  of  two,  that  many  of  their  'mind 
sets'  are  initiated  and  many  'habits'  formed 
as  soon  as  the  children  become  conscious  of 
their  social  contacts.  The  waste  involved  in 
breaking  wrong  habits  and  establishing  cor- 
rect ones  later  on  is  great ;  also,  the  chances 
for  non-elimination  and  non-modifiability 
of  early  established  habits  must  always  be 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  97 

reckoned  witli.  May  tve  make  posters  which 
will  attract  the  attention  of  and  carry  con- 
viction to  the  public  mind,  showing  the  im- 
portance of  educating  for  early  attitudes 
and  habits  of  mindV^  These  students  had 
gi'asped  the  psychological  and  pedagogical 
bearings  of  this  question  and  the  posters 
produced  were  simple,  direct,  dramatic,  and 
carried  conviction  to  the  observer.  Good 
mental  attitudes  and  habits  must  be  pro- 
vided for  from  the  very  beginning,  if  we 
would  reap  the  best  possible  results  and 
avoid  friction  and  waste  of  effort  through 
the  necessity  of  breaking  bonds  which  should 
never  have  been  established. 

There  are  three  main  points  to  be  empha- 
sized in  the  working  out  of  the  problem  set 
in  these  pages.  (1)  The  desirable  attitude 
of  mind  and  habits  of  response  must  be  de- 
veloped early,  the  earlier  the  better,  and 
must  be  grounded  in  daily  conduct  for  which 
conditions  must  be  provided  in  the  social  and 
physical  environment  of  the  children.  (2) 
The  material  used  in  school  to  establish  a 


98    PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

closer  bond  between  parents  and  children  on 
the  one  hand  and  between  children  and  the 
larger  human  groups  on  the  other,  must  be 
appreciated  and  acknowledged  as  coming 
from  respective  human  groups,  and  may  con- 
sist of  folk  games,  folk  dances,  folk  stories 
and  poetry,  folk  music  and  art ;  also  of  a  well 
planned  course  in  history  and  geography,  in 
which  the  interest  centers  about  child  life  in 
conmiunities  remote  from  the  home  group, 
as  well  as  in  home  geography.  In  these 
groups  life  must  be  relatively  simple  so  as 
to  come  within  the  interpretive  ability  of 
little  children,  and  so  as  to  enlarge  their  per- 
sonal experience  by  thinking  and  living  as 
members  of  the  group  studied.  For  ex- 
ample, taking  as  point  of  departure  our 
most  severe  winter  weather  with  its  snow 
and  ice  and  its  discomforts  as  well  as  its 
pleasures,  the  life  of  Eskimo  boys  and  girls 
may  be  approached  through  this  home  ex- 
perience, and  interpreted  in  terms  of  longer 
periods  of  time,  more  extreme  conditions, 
greater   isolation    and   increased   distance 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  99 

from  the  comforts  available  to  us.  The  ques- 
tion, "What  would  you  do  if  you  were  in  this 
boy's  or  girl's  place*?"  if  properly  provided 
with  the  determining  background,  and  to  a 
large  extent  with  the  means  of  execution  will 
lead  our  children  to  intelligent  thinking, 
sympathetic  appreciation  of  handicaps  as 
well  as  of  achievement,  and  reasonable 
adjustments  and  responses  to  existing 
conditions. 

(3)  The  proper  and  ethical  use  of  the  ma- 
terial suggested  will  lead  to  the  ability  of  liv- 
ing in  close  contact  with  others  on  a  basis  of 
mutual  regard  and  helpfulness ;  to  the  grow- 
ing respect  for  personality  and  its  legitimate 
demands;  to  the  appreciation  of  worthy 
achievement  in  whatever  humaai  group  it  has 
been  produced;  to  the  desire  to  add  a  con- 
tribution of  one's  own  to  the  general  fimd 
of  valuable  inheritance  to  be  used  for  the 
good  of  all. 

With  keen  appreciation  of  Stevenson's 
charm  and  insight  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
his: — 


100  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

''Of  speckled  eggs  the  birdie  sings 
And  nests  among  the  trees ; 
The  sailor  sings  of  ropes  and  things 
In  ships  upon  the  seas. ' ' 

* '  The  children  sing  in  far  Japan, 
The  children  sing  in  Spain. 
The  organ  with  the  organ  man, 
Is  singing  in  the  rain." 

with  its  touch  of  universal  comradeship  and 
common  ideals  represents  more  adequately 
the  hoped-for  permanent  'mind  set'  than 
his: — 

*'  Little  Indian  Sioux  or  Crow, 
Little  frosty  Eskimo, 
'    Little  Turk  or  Japanee, 

O,  don't  you  wish  that  you  were  me!" 

The  exuberance  and  physical  exaltation 
which  prompts  the  latter  expression  is,  of 
course,  normal,  legitimate  and  innocent  if  it 
stands  for  a  temporary  ebullition  of  joy 
rather  than  for  a  dominant  attitude  of 
thought. 

Little  children  must,  of  course,  be  largely 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  101 

unconscious  of  these  ethical  aims  and  pur- 
poses which  are  carried  constantly  in  mind 
by  the  teacher.  The  responsibility  of  bring- 
ing about  the  desired  results  rests  with  her ; 
it  is  her  task  tactfully  and  skillfully  to  pro- 
vide the  proper  conditions  which  will  insure 
in  the  children  the  responses  necessary  for 
continued  growth  along  the  lines  indicated. 
To  summarize: — 

1.  The  teacher  must  be  able  to  illustrate 
by  demonstration  that  everywhere  human 
groups  have  produced  achievements  worthy 
of  being  included  in  the  social  inheritance. 

2.  She  must  in  dealing  with  little  children 
place  the  emphasis  upon  similarities  among 
human  groups  —  common  needs,  ideals, 
thoughts  and  so  on — rather  than  upon 
differences. 

3.  She  must  know  in  how  large  a  degree 
differences  in  hiunan  groups  are  due  to  vari- 
ations in  environment,  and  lead  others  to  see 
this. 

4.  She  must  be  able  to  trace  the  relation 
between     environment     and     opportunity, 


102  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

aud  sliow  its  expression  in  the  general  life  of 
different  liimian  groups. 

5.  She  must  have  the  knowledge  and  in- 
sight to  interpret  conduct  in  various  human 
groups  in  terms  of  growth,  of  conquest,  of 
environment,  of  contribution  to  hmnan 
achievement. 

6.  8he  must  herself  understand  and  cre- 
atively react  to  the  hmnan  group  in  which 
she  is  working  in  order  to  develop  in  the  lit- 
tle children  the  same  ability.  (Read:  An- 
gelo  Patri's,  The  Schoolmaster  of  a  Great 
City,  Macmillan  Co.)  She  must  herself  have 
faith  in  the  larger  \dsion  and  in  the  integrity 
and  possibility  of  growth  in  the  various  hu- 
man groups.  She  must  through  her  own  life 
and  through  that  of  the  little  children  carry 
the  conviction  that  co-operation,  'team- 
work' is  not  merely  possible,  but  the  miiver- 
sal  end  greatly  to  be  desired  among  individ- 
uals and  among  human  groups  alike. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  enumerate  at 
length  projects  which  little  children  will 
want  to  carry  out  in  working  for  these  re- 


THE  ETHICAL  ASPECT  103 

suits.  Many  have  already  been  suggested  in 
the  other  chapters  of  the  book.  The  chil- 
dren's social  experience  provides  for  a  num- 
ber; the  'safety  first'  movement;  the  police- 
man's function  as  'helper';  the  letter  car- 
rier bringing  us  into  touch  with  home  and 
foreign  lands;  the  festivals — Christmas, 
Easter,  Harvest,  Thanksgiving — in  which 
all  do  their  share;  the  life  of  other  little 
children  in  other  lands,  all  of  these  projects 
are  part  of  the  children's  lives  and  furnish 
the  possibilities  needed  for  growth. 

During  this  period  of  international  stress 
and  reconstruction  the  principles  involved 
ivhich  are  constructive  and  which  are  valu- 
able at  all  times  are  the  ones  to  be  empha- 
sized with  our  children  by  means  of  con- 
crete projects.  In  conservation  of  all  kinds, 
in  Red  Cross  work,  in  the  thrift  saving  move- 
ment, in  the  spirit  of  general  helpfulness 
and  service  are  foimd  the  tasks  which  are 
within  the  strength  and  comprehension  of 
little  children,  and  which  will  fill  their  minds 
with  the  thoughts  that  establish  the  bonds  of 


104  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMAIIY  GRADES 

good  fellowship  and  brotherhood.  Happi- 
ness and  joy  are  the  birthright  of  the  chil- 
dren. They  make  for  mental  health  and 
yigor  and  those  qualities  of  character  which 
are  needed  most  in  a  social  world. 

"But  there  is  neither  East  nor  West,  Border  nor 
Breed  nor  Birth, 
"When  two  strong  men  stand  face  and  face,  tho '  they 
come  from  the  ends  of  the  earth ! ' ' 

Kipling. 


NATURE  EXPERIENCE 

"For  Nature,  true  and  like  in  every  place, 
Will  hint  her  secret  in  a  garden  patch, 
Or  in  lone  corners  of  a  doleful  heath. ' ' 

JK.  W.  Emerson. 

' '  To  read  the  sense  the  woods  impart, 
You  must  bring  the  throbbing  heart. ' ' 

R.  W.  Emerson. 

' '  See  yonder  leafless  trees  against  the  sky, 
How  they  diffuse  themselves  into  the  air 
And  ever  subdividing,  separate 
Limbs  into  branches,  branches  into  twigs ; 
As  if  they  loved  the  element,  and  hasted 
To  dissipate  their  being  into  it. ' ' 

R.  W.  Emerson. 

"I  thought  the  sparrow's  note  from  heaven. 

Singing  at  eve  on  the  alder  bough ; 

I  brought  him  home,  in  his  nest,  at  even ; 

He  sings  the  song,  but  it  cheers  not  now ; 

For  I  did  not  bring  home  the  river  and  sky; — 

He  sang  to  my  ear,  they  sang  to  my  eye. 

The  delicate  shells  lay  on  the  shore; 

The  bubbles  of  the  latest  wave 

105 


106  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Presh  pearls  to  their  enamel  gave ; 
And  the  bellowing  of  the  savage  sea 
Greeted  their  safe  escape  to  me. 
I  wiped  away  the  weeds  and  foam, 
I  fetched  my  sea-bom  treasures  home ; 
But  the  poor  unsightly,  noisome  things 
Had  left  their  beauty  on  the  shore 
With  the  sun  and  the  sand  and  the  wild  uproar." 

R.  W.  Emerson. 

"As  I  spoke,  beneath  my  feet 

The  ground-pine  curled  its  pretty  wreath, 

Running  over  the  club  moss  burs ; 

I  inhaled  the  violet's  breath; 

Around  me  stood  the  oaks  and  firs ; 

Pine-cones  and  acorns  lay  on  the  ground; 

Over  me  soared  the  eternal  sky, 

Full  of  light  and  of  deity ; 

Again  I  saw,  again  I  heard. 

The  rolling  river,  the  morning  bird; — 

Beauty  through  my  senses  stole; 

I  yielded  myself  to  the  perfect  whole. " 

B.  W.  Emerson. 


NATURE  EXPERIENCE  AND  PURPOSEFUL 
ACTIVITIES 

It  is  very  evident  that  social  experience 
and  nature  experience  are  blended  so  con- 
stantly and  naturally  in  everyday  life,  that 
they  cannot  be  arbitrarily  separated.  The 
need  for  a  clear-cut  presentation  and  the  lim- 
itations of  the  printed  page  have  made  a 
division  necessary;  again  there  arises  the 
question  of  the  shifting  of  emphasis  rather 
than  an  elimination  of  relevant  topics.  One 
does  not  and  cannot  exclude  the  other.  Both 
emphasize  largely  the  same  principles  and 
provide  for  the  building  up  of  the  physical 
and  mental  health  of  the  children. 

The  mere  getting  acquainted  with  nature 
is  one  of  the  most  vital  impulses  of  the  active 
child;  the  identification,  enumeration,  ob- 
servation, appreciation  of  all  phenomena 
that  come  within  his  reach.  Especially  is  he 
concerned  in  every  living  thing,  largely  be- 
cause of  the  elements  of  motion  and  change 

107 


108  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

contained  in  it;  hence  animals  and  plants 
engross  his  attention,  how  they  live  and  move 
and  react.  Inorganic  nature  is  jjart  of  this 
moving,  changing  life,  a  sort  of  background 
for  it ;  besides  it  has  its  own  fascination,  so 
it  should  not  be  neglected. 

The  seasonal  choice  of  topics  for  yoimg 
children  is  the  most  natural,  because  of  its 
direct  appeal;  the  everyday  occurrences  in 
nature  are  of  value  for  the  same  reason  and 
should  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  material. 
Should  an  unusual  event  occur,  a  circus  come 
to  town,  a  rare  specimen  be  brought  in,  it 
should,  of  course,  be  exploited  to  its  full  ex- 
tent. However,  to  hunt  for  the  exceptional 
and  startling  is  neither  necessary  nor  desir- 
able, and  largely  defeats  the  aim  of  the 
work. 

Nature  experience  for  little  children  must 
be  first  hand.  Stuffed  specimens  and  pic- 
tures are  good  in  their  place  for  identifica- 
tion, for  illustration  of  story  and  geography 
material,  but  they  can  never  hope  to  fulfill 
the  function  of  nature  study.     They  are 


NATURE  EXPERIENCE  109 

dead ;  nature  is  alive.  This  brings  us  to  the 
method  of  approach  and  to  the  method  of 
dealing  with  nature  experience. 

Children  are  constantly  asking  for  the 
why?  what?  how?  what  for?  when?  where? 
of  things.  This  should  be  the  clue  as  to  ma- 
terial handled,  the  data  emphasized — the 
functional  side  of  life  being  the  significant 
one,,  the  structure  being  subordinate  and 
touched  upon  only  in  so  far  as  it  helps  to 
understand  and  illuminate  expressions  of 
nature  activity.  How  a  bird  lives ;  what  he 
eats ;  how  he  gets  his  food ;  where  he  finds  it ; 
where  he  has  his  home;  how  he  makes  it; 
how  he  looks  after  his  babies,  etc. ;  these  are 
the  problems  to  follow  up.  To  illustrate: 
The  number,  size,  position  of  teeth  are  im- 
material so  far  as  the  child  is  concerned ;  the 
significant  factor  being  the  food  of  the  squir- 
rel for  which  it  needs  more  resistant  teeth 
than  we  have.  By  approaching  nature  from 
the  side  of  her  expression  of  herself,  the  chil- 
dren gradually  come  to  know  that  the  creat- 
ures all  about  them  have  problems  similar 


110  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

to  their  own,  that  they  are  all  in  various 
ways  dependent,  that  there  are  causes  which 
produce  the  effects  they  observe,  and  that  re- 
spect for  all  creation  is  one  of  the  lessons  nec- 
essary to  learn.  Also  they  gradually  learn  to 
think  of  themselves  as  only  one  in  a  vast  uni- 
verse of  wonderful  living  and  changing  iden- 
tities ;  this  should  be  one  of  the  elements  de- 
veloped by  nature  study  and  geography, 
leading  on  to  the  *  understanding  which 
makes  the  whole  world  kin. '  The  ethical  and 
appreciative  values  of  nature  experience  can 
hardly  he  overestimated;  the  economic  value 
is  of  importance,  though  to  a  greater  degree 
a  little  later,  when  the  children  are  more  ma- 
ture and  the  love,  sympathy,  and  apprecia- 
tion necessaiy  for  the  best  attitude  have  be- 
gun to  take  root.  The  scientific  value  at  this 
time  lies  largely  in  the  habits  of  work  and 
attitudes  of  mind  established  in  nature  ex- 
perience as  well  as  in  other  lines  of  work. 
The  social  value  is  emphasized  in  excur- 
sions, gardening,  utilization  for  social  pur- 
poses of  the  fruits  of  the  work,  and  in  other 


NATURE  EXPERIENCE  111 

similar   ways   involving   normal   relations 
among  children,  and  team-work. 

That  'eugenics'  can  and  should  not  be 
taught  in  the  primary  grades  needs  hardly 
be  stated.  However,  it  should  be  pointed  out, 
that  because  of  the  impersonal  basis  and  the 
universal  occurrence  of  reproduction  in  na- 
ture, observation  and  respect  cultivated 
early  along  this  line,  will  make  the  later 
necessary  personal  study  a  natural  growth. 
PoUenization  of  pussy  willows,  fertilization 
by  bees  for  older  children,  the  life  history 
of  the  chick,  the  egg  as  the  treasure  house 
of  many  animals,  the  tiny  kittens,  the  care 
of  animals  for  their  offspring,  the  function 
and  distribution  of  the  seed  in  plants,  all  of 
these  data  form  a  valuable  and  indispen- 
sable background  to  the  outlook  upon  life. 
Add  to  these,  good  habits  of  cleanliness  of 
mind  and  body  formed  in  little  children,  and 
the  much-discussed  problem  of  adolescence 
ought  to  be  simplified.  The  child  by  means  of 
his  nature  experience  follows  interests  which 
are  vital  to  him  at  the  time,  and  at  the  same 


112  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PREVL^RY  GRADES 

time   lays   the    foundation   for   something 
which  leads  him  on  to  a  life  project. 

It  is  most  important  that  facts  told  by  the 
teacher  should  come  under  the  possible  ob- 
servation of  the  child.  Care  should  be  taken : 
(1)  To  keep  him  in  an  open-minded,  'sus- 
pended judgment'  attitude;  to  avoid  forc- 
ing him  into  making  generalizations  for 
which  he  has  not  sufficient  data,  thus  keep- 
ing his  interest  alive,  as  well  as  working  for 
truthfulness  and  acciu^acy  of  attitude  and 
statement.  (2)  To  avoid  injudicious,  indis- 
criminate telling  by  the  teacher  of  facts, 
which  take  the  zest  from  further  original  in- 
vestigation. Wise  and  skillful  is  the  teacher 
who  can  tell  just  enough  and  at  the  proper 
time  to  whet  the  appetite  and  stimulate  to 
further  research.  The  problem  of  the  teacher 
consists  in  encouraging  towards  nature  an 
open-minded  much-varied,  sympathetic 
appreciation  and  attitude,  a  habit  of  mind  in 
dealing  with  phenomena  by  means  of  spe- 
cific details  imder  observation.  To  the  lit- 
tle child  the  personal  element  is  very  close. 


NATURE  EXPERIENCE  118 

permeating  all  his  relations  with  his  envi- 
ronment. 

The  amount  of  material  covered,  the  time 
devoted  to  it,  the  sequence  followed,  the 
adaptations  made  will  depend  in  each  case 
upon  local  conditions,  individual  preference, 
experiences  and  maturity  of  the  children, 
administrative  difficulties  and  so  on.  At  best 
a  scheme  of  work  such  as  is  given  here  can 
only  indicate  the  point  of  approach,  the  at- 
titude toward  the  problem  and  suggestions 
and  data  towards  its  solution.  The  individ- 
ual teacher  must  assimilate  and  recreate  ac- 
cording to  the  peculiar  needs  of  her  situa- 
tion, otherwise  the  best  plan  becomes  stereo- 
typed and  artificial.  In  the  higher  grades, 
beginning  with  the  tliird  and  fourth,  more 
mature  problems  and  greater  detail  may  be 
worked  out  and  the  economic  side  of  nature 
experience  can  be  stressed  to  a  greater 
extent. 

It  is  in  the  hope  that  these  suggestions 
may  prove  helpful  in  themselves  and  lay  the 
basis  for  future  agricultural  and  geographic, 


114  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

social,  and  historic  studies  that  this  plan  has 
been  written.  The  general  scheme  has  been 
to  indicate  the  scope  of  the  subject,  to  pre- 
sent in  detail  certain  portions  of  it,  and  to 
point  out  the  connections  wliicli  exist  be- 
tween nature  experience  and  other  phases  of 
experience  in  the  child's  life.  These  points 
of  contact  should  be  the  starting  point  of 
any  study  or  investigation  made.  In  this 
way  it  will  present  itself  to  the  child's  mind 
as  a  problem  to  be  solved  and  related  to  other 
problems.  It  is  hoped  by  these  means  to 
avoid  the  ordinary  fallacy  of  the  primary 
program  which  consists  in  separating  into 
*  compartments'  the  naturally  unified  life  of 
the  child.    (See  chapter  on  Play.) 

The  divisions  into  animal  life,  plant  life, 
weather  and  so  on  are  necessarily  arbi- 
trary and  overlap  frequently.  All  that  has 
been  said  about  play,  children's  projects  and 
problems,  expression  through  oral  language 
and  the  use  of  literature  in  connection  with 
social  experience  bears  equally  upon  the 
field  of  nature  experience. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY 


BIRDS 


Beginning  in  the  fall  the  general  topic  of 
migration  is  a  seasonal  one  to  bear  in  niind. 
There  are  several  ways  in  which  it  may  be 
approached.    Here  is  one. 

MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS 

What  birds  have  you  seen  lately  ?  Where  ? 
What  specific  bird"?  What  was  it  doing? 
What  did  you  see  the  robin  doing  in  the 
spring?  Does  it  mate  now?  Build  a  nest? 
What  has  become  of  the  baby  birds?  (Chil- 
dren may  report  not  having  seen  any  birds, 
or  having  seen  them  in  flocks.)  What  has 
become  of  the  birds  you  saw  last  summer? 
Why  do  robins  (blackbirds,  etc.)  gather  in 
flocks  now?  How  do  they  know  when  it  is 
time  to  go?  Is  there  anything  besides  cold 
weather  to  drive  them  oiway  ? 

115 


116  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

FOOD 

What  does  the  robin  eat?  The  wood- 
pecker ?  The  chickadee  ?  Where  does  he  find 
his  food  ?  How  does  he  get  it  I  Poes  he  al- 
ways have  plenty?  When  does  the  robin 
get  a  big  meal?  Why  does  he  go  away? 
What  other  birds  would  have  to  go  for  the 
same  reason  that  the  robin  goes  ?  What  does 
the  chickadee  eat?  What  does  he  do  when 
the  insects  are  gone?  Is  there  any  way  to 
help  him?  What  can  we  do?  What  shall 
we  feed  him  ?  Where  shall  we  put  it  ?  Why 
not  on  the  snow?  How  often?  (Activities 
involving  the  constructing  of  bird  feeders, 
bird  fountains,  suet  suspended  from  trees, 
grain  baskets,  are  in  order  here.  The  Christ- 
mas custom  of  putting  out  a  sheaf  of  wheat 
tied  to  a  pole  can  be  followed  and  the  little 
poem  of  Christmas  in  Norway,  by  Celia 
Thaxter,  read  to  the  children.  Stories  like 
Why  the  Evergreen  Trees  keep  their  Leaves, 
by  S.  C.  Bryant,  and  The  Birds  of  Killings- 
worth,  by  Longfellow,  the  woodpecker  and 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  117 

robin  stories  and  others  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage ;  read,  told  and  acted.) 

Why  do  we  not  want  the  birds  to  die  ?  will 
open  up  a  discussion  of  their  beauty,  song, 
charm  of  movement,  utility. 

Do  we  ever  have  trouble  in  getting  food 
as  the  birds  do "?  (Such  a  question  will  make 
a  connection  between  bird  life  and  the  study 
of  home,  farm,  winter  and  summer  foods, 
showing  universal  dependence  on  food  and 
drink.) 

When  little  birds  no  longer  find  enough 
food,  where  do  they  go?  Why  do  they  fly 
in  flocks  ?  Could  you  find  your  way  as  they 
do?  How  do  they  learn ?  (It  is  always  well 
to  leave  the  topic  at  an  interesting  point  with 
food  for  thought,  and  at  a  moment  when  the 
element  of  appreciation  and  wonder  is 
prominent  in  the  mind.) 

DOMESTIC  BIRDS  AND  PETS 

What  birds  stay  with  us  in  winter?  Dis- 
cuss with  the  children  their  winter  habits. 
What  birds  does  the  farmer  always  have 


118  PROJECTS  m  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

with  him?  (If  possible,  take  excursion  to 
poultry  farm.  The  care  of  chickens  is  prof- 
itable if  it  can  be  arranged.  See  Francis  W. 
Parker  Year  Book,  June,  1914.)  Why  does 
he  keep  them?  Must  he  do  anything  for 
them?  What  does  he  feed  the  chickens? 
The  ducks?  The  geese?  The  turkeys? 
(Take  specific  animals  rather  than  general 
groups.)  How  much?  How  often?  Where 
does  he  keep  them?  Poes  it  make  any  dif- 
ference what  kind  of  a  place  they  have  to 
live  in?  How  are  the  houses  arranged  in- 
side ?  Why  must  they  be  kept  clean  ?  Where 
would  you  expect  to  look  for  the  eggs  ?  Can 
you  tell  when  a  hen  has  laid  an  egg  ? 

Of  what  use  are  the  chickens  to  the 
farmer?  The  ducks?  The  geese?  Does  he 
raise  them  for  food  or  for  eggs?  Does  it 
make  any  difference  in  the  care  they  get? 
The  food  they  eat? 

What  does  the  farmer  do  with  his  chick- 
ens? Ducks?  Geese?  Turkeys?  Where 
does  he  sell  them?  How  much  does  he  get? 
For  broilers?    For  eggs?   What  does  it  cost 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  119 

him  to  keep  them  ?  Does  he  make  any  money 
on  them ?  (Connection  should  be  made  with 
a  specific  case.)  How  much  does  your 
mother  pay  for  chickens  ?  For  eggs  ?  Where 
does  she  get  them?  Why  does  she  like  to 
get  them  from  the  country  ?  Why  does  she 
want  them  fresh?  Do  they  cost  the  same 
wherever  she  gets  them  ?  Why  more  at  the 
store?  What  else  does  she  get  from  the 
farmer  ?  Why  ?  How  often  does  he  come  ? 
(Possibly  the  following  phase  might  be  best 
discussed  in  the  spring.)  How  are  little 
chickens  raised?  Ducks?  Geese?  Tur- 
keys? When  are  the  hens  set?  How  long 
does  it  take?  Why  must  the  eggs  be  kept 
warm  ?  Does  the  hen  never  leave  the  nest  ? 
How  were  the  little  birds  hatched?  Po  you 
know  any  other  way  of  hatching?  (Show 
the  incubator  and  explain,  if  available.) 
How  are  little  chickens  cared  for?  Why 
not  like  baby  birds  in  the  nest?  Little 
ducks  ?  Why  do  we  all  like  little  chickens  ? 
(Bring  them  to  school;  visit  children  who 
have  them.)     How  are  they  fed?    Do  they 


120  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

learn  to  peck  and  drink?  Can  your  baby  at 
home  take  <?are  of  itself  as  soon  as  the  little 
chicken  can?  Can  the  little  baby  robin? 
How  long  before  baby  can  eat  alone  ?  Walk  ? 

What  do  ducks  and  geese  like  that  chick- 
ens do  not  like  ?  Why  ?  Can  you  find  any- 
thing on  the  duck  that  will  help  it  in  swim- 
ming? Do  the  ducks  look  as  if  they  liked 
diving  ?  Can  you  swim  as  they  do  ?  Dive  ? 
Would  you  like  to  learn?  How  does  the 
duck  learn? 

Why  do  chickens  not  fly  away  and  leave 
us?  Ducks?  Geese?  What  has  happened 
to  them  ?  (Tell  simply  the  story  of  domesti- 
cation.) Can  you  tame  them?  What  tame 
animals  have  you  seen  ?  Fed  ?  If  you  were 
to  keep  chickens,  what  would  you  need  to 
know? 

PETS 

What  birds  have  you  seen  in  cages  ?  Did 
they  sing?  Did  they  seem  happy?  How 
must  we  treat  them  if  we  want  to  keep  them  ? 
(This  is  followed  by  a  discussion  of  care 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  121 

needed,  food  and  drink,  protection,  etc., 
leading  to  the  general  topic  of  protection  of 
birds.  If  possible  let  children  have  a  pet 
to  care  for.) 

PROTECTION"  OF  BIRDS 

Where  shall  we  put  our  little  bird?  Why 
do  people  hang  their  birds  up  high?  Can 
you  teach  kittens  not  to  eat  birds?  Then 
how  will  you  look  after  your  bird  ?  Is  kitty 
good  for  anjrfching?  Do  cats  eat  chickens? 
What  else  hurts  little  chickens?  (Hawk, 
fox,  coyote,  etc.,  according  to  locality.)  How 
can  we  protect  them?  By  day?  By  night? 
Does  the  mother  hen  protect  them?  How? 
The  father?  Do  the  other  little  birds  have 
troubles?  What  kind?  (Discussion  of 
enemies  in  the  form  of  other  ammals:  cats, 
birds,  squirrels,  etc.;  tveather:  cold,  wind 
throwing  babies  out  of  nest,  etc.;  food: 
scarcity,  and  so  forth.) 

How  do  the  birds  protect  themselves  ?  The 
robin?  From  enemies?  (Fighting:  making 
noises  to  frighten,  hiding  nests,  misleading 


122  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PREViARY  GRADES 

approachers,  etc.)  From  weather  ?  (Migra- 
tion, downy  feathers,  sheltered  places,  etc.) 
(Special  adaptations:  (woodpecker's  tail; 
bills  adapted  to  getting  food — ^the  robin, 
woodpecker,  sandpiper,  etc.) 

Flight:   (flycatchers  lighting  upon  food, 
etc.) 
Feet:  (for  perching,  swimming,  etc.) 
Legs:  (for  running — sandpiper,  etc.) 
These  points  are  introduced  to  be  used  at 
discretion  of  teacher  and  according  to  en- 
vironment.    (Be  careful  in  the  use  of  the 
term    *  adaptation.'      Remember    that    an 

*  adaptation'  is  frequently  a  result  of  a  cer- 
tain  mode  of  living,  rather  than  a  protective 
agent.     We    often    erroneously   speak   of 

*  adaptation'  as  if  there  were  a  conscious  pur- 
pose involved.) 

What  can  we  do  for  birds?    Review  of 
previous  points  mentioned. 

Provide  regular  food  and  drink. 

Keep  off  enemies  by  providing  proper 
shelter. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  123 

Plant  shrubs  and  trees  they  like  for 
nesting  and  singing. 

Take  proper  care  of  pets  and  poultry. 

Get  other  people  to  help. 

Stop  wearing  birds  on  hats. 

Obey  bird  laws. 
(Tell  them  about  the  Audubon  Society 
and  the  bird  laws.    Provide  as  many  condi- 
tions as  possible  for  actual  reaction  along 
these  various  lines.) 

IDENTIFICATION  OF  BIRDS 

What  birds  do  you  know?  What  other? 
Where  have  you  seen  them?  What  birds 
have  you  seen  around  home?  Downtown? 
In  the  park?  On  the  farm?  Where  have 
you  seen  the  most  ?  In  open  places  ?  In  the 
streets  ?  In  the  woods  ?  Near  water  ?  When 
did  you  see  the  most  ?  On  the  way  to  school  ? 
On  the  way  home  ?  At  noon  ?  Early  morn- 
ing? Late  at  night?  When  did  you  hear 
them  ?  What  did  the  robin  say  ?  The  wood- 
pecker? (Song,  calls,  whistles.)  Did  it 
sound  pleasant  or  not?    Can  you  tell  the 


124  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

robin  when  you  hear  it?  The  blackbird? 
Does  it  always  say  the  same  thing  ?  Does 
the  robin?  The  cat-bird,  etc.  Would  you 
like  to  learn  the  calls  of  the  birds  and  be 
able  to  tell  to  which  bird  each  call  belongs  ? 
We  shall  try  to  do  it.  We  must  be  very  quiet 
and  very  patient  when  we  watch  for  birds. 
(Let  children  practice  calls  and  songs.) 

Is  there  any  way  you  can  know  a  bird  ex- 
cept by  his  call  ?  How  do  you  know  a  robin 
from  a  sparrow  ?  A  blackbird  from  a  robin  ? 
A  woodpecker  from  a  robin?  A  bluebird 
from  a  blue  jay?  A  duck  from  a  goose ?  A 
duck  from  a  chicken?  A  warbler  from  a 
sparrow  ? 

Teach  comparison  between  two  specific 
birds;  as  well  as  description  of  any  one 
bird.  In  this  and  similar  ways  bring  out 
identification  by  size ;  color ;  peculiar  mark- 
ings ;  adaptations  o:^  feet,  bill,  tail ;  locomo- 
tion. (Take  care  to  dwell  only  upon  most 
striking  characteristics,  contrasts  and  sim- 
ilarities. At  this  age  the  finer  distinctions 
must  not  be  insisted  upon.    Pictures  and 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  125 

stuffed  specimens  may  here  be  used,  if  nec- 
essary— for  identification  only — of  birds  al- 
ready seen  out  of  doors.) 

Who  will  be  a  robin  and  get  a  worm  out 
of  the  ground?  A  blackbird  and  walk 
across  the  room?  A  woodpecker  and  climb 
a  tree?  A  warbler  and  fly  in  and  out  the 
branches  ?  A  chicken  and  peck  ?  A  duck  ? 
A  hawk?  A  peacock?  A  rooster?  Who 
will  be  a  bird  and  make  us  guess  which  one 
by  what  you  do  ?  Who  can  guess  what  bird 
John  was?  Was  it  well  done?  Who  else 
will  try  ?  What  bird  would  you  like  to  be  ? 
Why?  (In  this  way  the  play  spirit  of  the 
children  can  be  utilized.) 

We  will  watch  for  a  bird  to-day.  When 
you  want  to  watch  a  bird,  be  very  quiet; 
watch  carefully ;  if  possible,  get  the  sun  be- 
hind you  and  the  bird  in  front;  half  close 
your  eyes ;  see  what  he  is  doing ;  how  he  does 
it;  when  he  flies  away,  try  to  do  what  you 
saw  him  do.  If  he  is  singing,  what  kind  of 
a  song  ?   Where  is  he  ?   Does  he  sing  flying  ? 


126  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

If  getting  food,  what  kind  of  food?  Where ? 
If  flying,  watch  his  wings  and  body;  posi- 
tion of  feet.  If  swimming,  watch  feet  and 
body.  Watch  his  movements  in  the  tree  and 
on  the  ground.  What  are  his  colors'? 
Where?  Larger  or  smaller  than  robin, 
sparrow  or  other  bird  children  know?  Tail 
longer  or  shorter  by  comparison  with  known 
bird?  Bill,  length  and  shape  in  comparison 
with  some  bill  known. 

(These  directions  must,  of  course,  be 
worked  upon  discriminately  and  gradually 
as  the  occasion  arises.  It  would  be  absurd 
to  expect  little  children  to  remember  them 
all  in  any  given  situation.  They  are  grouped 
together  merely  to  indicate  the  trend  which 
cumulative  observation  is  to  take,  and  the 
habits  to  be  cultivated  during  the  progress 
of  the  season.  The  younger  and  the  more 
immature  the  children,  the  less  subtle  must 
be  the  discriminations  made.) 

Example  of  possible  use  of  unusual  ma- 
terial. (Suppose  a  circus  has  come  to  town.) 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  127 

THE  OSTRICH 

Would  you  like  to  tell  about  tlie  big  bird 
you  saw  at  the  circus?  Or,  who  can  make 
us  think  of  the  big  bird  you  saw  at  the  cir- 
cus? (Let  child  strut,  pose,  etc.)  What 
was  his  name  ?  Could  you  draw  a  picture  of 
him  on  the  board?  Try  it.  What  did  you 
notice  first?  (Long  legs,  long  neck,  small 
head,  feathers,  manner  of  motion,  etc.) 
What  does  he  need  the  long  legs  for  ?  Shall 
I  tell  you  about  the  home  of  the  ostrich  and 
how  he  lives  ?  (Have  story  prepared  in  sim- 
ple dramatic  style ;  tell  also  about  eggs  and 
baby  ostriches.)  Po  we  use  the  ostrich  in 
any  way?  How?  How  do  we  get  the 
feathers  ?  Does  this  hurt  the  ostrich  ?  How 
are  the  feathers  made  ready  to  wear?  Tell 
children  about  the  ostrich  farms  in  Florida 
and  California.  Why  did  the  circus  people 
have  the  ostrich?  What  do  they  feed  him? 
What  care  does  he  need  ? 

The  outline  form  has  been  chosen  in  the 
following  pages  for  several  reasons.    First, 


128  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

in  order  to  give  to  teachers  a  perspective  of 
the  scope  of  the  subject  matter  from  which 
they  may  draw  according  to  the  needs  of 
their  children  at  any  given  time,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  exigencies  of  special  situations. 
Secondly,  because  the  field  of  nature  ex- 
perience is  so  extensive,  and  the  points  of 
contact  between  the  child  and  his  natural  en- 
vironment are  so  numerous  that  it  would 
obviously  be  impossible  to  conceive  of  all  the 
situations  arising  therefrom.  Hence  it  has 
seemed  best  to  indicate  the  scope  of  the  ma- 
terial ;  to  present  rather  fully,  as  under  the 
heading  'Birds,'  the  method  of  procedure  in 
connection  with  one  topic;  to  call  attention 
repeatedly  to  the  chief  2i\m-~the  provision 
for  child  experience  and  activity  in  school 
life  in  such  a  way  as  to  utilize  these  to  the 
fullest  extent  and  to  create  situations  for  the 
carrying  of  these  over  into  unblocked  cre- 
ative channels  leading  to  continuous  groT\1:h 
towards  an  established  ideal.  It  is  the 
teacher's  task  to  keep  free  these  channels 
and  to  provide  for  the  opening  up  of  new 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  129 

ones  as  occasions  arise.  In  the  use  of  the 
outlines  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  these 
points  constantly  in  mind  and  to  apply  one's 
knowledge  of  child  life  to  making  for  the 
child  the  best  connections  and  obtaining 
from  him  the  most  desired  reactions.  Out- 
lines may  easily  become  stereot5^ed  and  bar- 
ren of  fruitful  results  unless  interpreted 
through  the  needs  and  spontaneous  interests 
of  the  child. 

OUTLINE  FOR  STUDY  OF  BIRDS 

I.  Relation  of  bird  life  as  observed,  to : —  (This  to 
be  emphasized  whenever  there  is  occasion  as  accom- 
paniment of  other  topics.) 

1.  Other  animals. 

2.  Vegetation. 

3.  Weather  conditions. 

4.  Home  making. 

(o)  Use  and  pleasure  to  man. 
(6)  Man's  responsibility  to  birds. 

II.  Habits  of  birds  in  the  neighborhood. 

1.  Migration. 

2.  Winter  habits. 

3.  Food  getting. 


ISO  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

4.  Home  making. 

5.  Mating  and  nesting.    Song. 

6.  Care  of  young. 

III.  Needs  and  adaptations  of  birds  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

1.  Food. 

2.  Shelter. 

3.  Covering. 

4.  Protection. 

5.  Play. 

IV.  Identification  of  birds  in  the  neighborhood. 

1.  Song  or  call  or  whistle.     Variety,  quality, 

expressiveness. 

2.  Color  and  strong  markings. 

3.  Locomotion. 

4.  Size  and  form. 

5.  Food  and  manner  of  procuring  food. 

6.  Locality — tree,  ground,  near  water,  woods,  etc. 

7.  Nest — kind,  material,  location. 

V.  Special  topics. 

1.  Domestic  birds. 

2.  Pets. 

3.  The  circus. 

VI.  Birds  in  song,  art,  story,  poetry  and  games. 
(See  special  references.) 

VII.  Activities  prompted  by  bird  study. 
1.  Play  activities: — being  birds. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  131 

2.  Activities  based  upon  need  of  care  and  pro- 

tection. 

3.  Constructive  activities : — bird  houses,  feeders, 

fountains,  etc. 

4.  Fine  arts  as  related  to  bird  study. 
VIII.  Bibliography. 

1.  Informational. 

2.  Esthetic,  literary,  imaginative. 

Note. — It  need  hardly  be  said  that  literature  of 
the  very  best  forms  a  prominent  feature  of  this  plan 
of  work.  Little  children  appreciate  largely — more 
largely  than  we  realize.  This  is  the  time  to  stimulate 
their  love  of  beautiful  and  good  things  and  to  develop 
life  interests  in  them. 

ANIMAL.  LIFE 

FaU:~ 

1.  Great  profusion;  then  disappearance. 

Kinds  of  animals;  reason  for  disappearance; 
manner  of  disappearance. 

2.  Where  the  animals  are  found ;  what  they  are  doing. 

Have  they  any  problems  ? 

3.  Why  they  go ;  where ;  what  changes  take  place  ? 

Migration;  hibernation;  winter  habits;  cocoons 
and  chrysalids;  how  animals  get  ready  for  cold 
weather. 

4.  What  do  we  do  to  get  ready  for  cold  weather  ? 


132  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRllMARY  GRADES 

5.  How  did  primitive  man  prepare  himself  ?  Specific 
illustrations. 

6.  Hunting  seasons : — ducks,  deer,  rabbit,  etc. 

(a)  What  do  we  mean  by  hunting  season  ? 

(b)  What  do  people  hunt  for!  What  kind  of 
animals? 

(c)  This  is  a  good  time  for  third  grades  to 
study  the  fur  trade  and  fur  as  an  article  of 
clothing. 

(d)  Why  do  animals  need  protecting  laws? 
What  are  some  of  them?  Bird  laws.  How 
can  we  protect  them  ?  Study  animal  family 
life  and  breeding  of  young. 

7.  The  hunter's  moon.    Unusual  phenomenon,  intro- 
duction to  interest  in  moon  and  stars. 

8.  Life  cycle: — the  butterfly  and  moth. 

9.  Pasturing  of  horses  and  cattle.     Care  necessary 
for  approaching  winter. 

10.  Calendar  recording  disappearing  life  and  changes 
in  temperature,  length  of  day,  etc.,  showing  rela- 
tion of  one  to  the  other. 

Winter: — 

1.  Animal  life  out  of  doors  as  it  presents  itself  in 
the  neighborhood. 
Systematic  feeding  of  birds,  squirrels,  etc. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  133 

Animal  tracks  in  the  snow.    Character,  location, 

where  they  lead,  how  to  follow,  etc. 
Animal  voices  and  calls. 

2.  Pets  and  their  care  and  comfort. 

3.  Domestic  animals  and  their  need. 

Their  care  and  comfort.    Horses  covered  while 

standing.      Proper  shoeing,  etc. 
Their  use  to  men.    Their  food,  etc. 

4.  Animal  products  used  in  the  home.    Source ;  cost ; 
diflBculty  in  procuring. 

5.  Animals  of  the  Zoo.    (Kipling — Just  So  Stories 

and  Jungle  Books.) 

6.  Animals  of  primitive  man  already  familiar.    Re- 

lation of  primitive  man  to  wild  and  domesticated 
animals.     (Stories  of  domestication.) 

Spring: — 

1.  Watching  and  recording  of  returning  animal  life 
out  of  doors.    The  joy  of  it.    What  it  means. 

2.  Recognition  of  calls,  whistles,  noises. 

3.  Family  life,  mating,  nesting,  care  of  young. 

(a)  Bird  life. 

(&)  Farm  life. 

(c)  Wild  life  other  than  bird. 

4.  Life  cycles : — bird  and  chick ;  butterfly  and  moth ; 

frog  and  toad.  Watching  developments ;  observa- 
tion in  native  lair. 


134  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

5.  Stimulation  and  response  between  returning  ani- 
mal life  and  returning  plant  life.  Birds  and 
trees ;  birds  and  the  garden. 

6.  Significance  of  Bird  day.   (Bird  day  in  literature.) 

7.  The  raising  of  little  chickens,  ducks,  turkeys,  pigs, 
calves,  colts.  The  differences  in  care  needed ;  dif- 
ference in  time  element. 

8.  The  feeding  of  animals ;  the  gathering  of  eggs ;  the 
Easter  custom  of  dyeing,  hiding  and  rolling  eggs. 
Filling  bird  fountains.  Observation  of  animals 
in  their  favorite  haunts. 

9.  Calendar  recording  returning  life. 

(At  the  seashore  there  is,  of  course,  quite  a  dis- 
tinctive fauna  and  flora  to  be  used.) 

PLANT  LIFE 

FaU:— 
1.  The  harvest : — at  home,  school,  garden,  farm  and 
market, 

(a)  The  joy  of  the  harvest;  work  completed 

and  crops  ready. 
(6)  The  labor  of  the  harvesc  in  its  various 
forms. 

(c)  The  fruits  of  the  harvest ;  what  they  are. 

(d)  Home  use  of  the  fruits  of  the  harvest,  pop- 
corn, pumpkin  pie,  biscuits,  corn  bread,  pre- 
served and  dried  fruit,  cider.  (Actually  have 
children  make  some  one  of  these.) 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  135 

ie)  Exhibition   of  the  harvest: — school   fair, 
county  fair ;  basis  for  selection  for  entering ; 
basis  for  prizes. 
(/)  Excursion  in  connection  with  harvest: — to 
fairs,  to  farms,  to  nearest  market,  to  home 
dealers,  etc. 
(g)  Distribution  of  the  harvest;  following  the 
crops  to  market ;  transportation ;  prices   and 
cost  of  production.     (Correlation  with  arith- 
metic.) 
(h)   The  social  side  of  the  harvest;  Thanks- 
giving and  Hallowe'en;  privileges  and  re- 
sponsibilities.      The     early     Thanksgiving. 
"  Husking  Bees." 
(i)  The  harvest  moon;  beginning  interest  in 
weather  phenomena. 
The  beauty  everywhere  of  color,  form,  design; 
grouping;   art  work;  collecting;  portfolios  and 
booklets;  decoration. 

The  cleaning  and  tidying  process  for  winter. 
Cleaning  up  of  gardens;  raking  up  leaves;  bon- 
fires; the  burning  of  weeds;  reasons.  Popping 
corn  in  the  open. 

Provisions  for  reproduction  of  plants  another  year. 
(a)  Seeds  and  their  dispersal. 
(h)  Pollenization  and  bees. 


136  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(c)  Budding    and    protection    of    trees    and 
shrubs. 

(d)  Dropping  of  leaves.    Storing  of  food. 

5.  Seeming  adaptations  of  plants  which  keep  off  man ; 
animals.  Adaptations  of  plants  against  inclem- 
ent weather. 

6.  Parts  of  plants  used  by  man ;  specific  examples. 

7.  The  life  cycle  of  the  'annual'  plant;  specific 
simple  examples. 

8.  Early  frosts;  protection  against;  maturing  of 
nuts,  etc. 

9.  Preserving  and  drying  fruits;  making  biscuits, 
com  bread,  etc. 

Winter: — 

1.  Storing  fruits  of  harvest : 

Silos,  cellars. 

Apples,  grain,  potatoes,  nuts,  etc. 

2.  Early  frosts;  heavy  winds;  equinoctial  rains; 
protection  against  inclement  weather. 

3.  The  market ;  storage  houses ;  prices.  (  Arithme- 
tic.)   Source  of  supplies.    Middlemen, 

4.  The  home  table;  the  part  that  comes  from  far 
away. 

5  Winter  fruits  and  where  they  are  grown.    How  we 

get  them. 
6.  The  greenhouse  products.  Trip  to  greenhouse. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  187 

7.  Winter  beauty  in  landscape. 

Art  work ;  utilization  of  material  for  decoration. 

8.  Care  of  plants  and  bulbs  in  room. 

9.  Christmas  trees  and  evergreens. 

10.  Drying  fruits;  gilding  nuts;  stringing  cranber- 
ries ;  popping  com  and  chestnuts. 

11.  Plants  that  are  visited  by  animals  in  winter;  for 
what  purpose. 

12.  The  plant-food  that  is  good  for  our  animals ;  that 
is  used  by  animals.  Feeding  of  cattle,  rabbits, 
horses. 

13.  The  food  of  primitive  man ;  the  kinds  used ;  prepa- 
ration ;  comparison  with  our  foods. 

Spring: — 

1.  Evidence  of  awakening  life. 

Flowing  of  sap ;  bursting  of  buds ;  green  grass ; 
early  flowers,  etc. 

2.  Study  of  early  flowers  in  their  haunts ;  storage  of 
food  in  bulbs.  Buds;  observation  of  unfolding 
outdoors  and  indoors. 

3.  Visit  to  *  sugar  bushes'  and  making  of  maple  sugar. 

4.  Germination  indoors;  showing  necessary  condi- 
tions for  plant  life;  variations  in  soil,  etc.  Try 
out  simple  experiments. 

5.  Gardening.  Familiarity  with  simplest  conditions; 
application  of  simplest  agricultural  principles. 


138  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Raising  of  early  matured  vegetables  and  flowers. 
Skill  in  manipulation  of  necessary  simple  tools. 

6.  Effect  on  plant  life  of  early  spring  rains;  late 
frost;  heavy  wind;  sunshine. 

7.  Early  odors  in  the  air. 

8.  Beauty  of  color,  form,  design,  grouping.  The 
marvels  of  nature;  leaves  unfolding;  butterflies 
emerging ;  the  early  blossoms. 

9.  The  intimate  intercourse  between  plants  and 
animals ;  various  purposes. 

10.  Similarity  in  needs  of  plants,  animal  and  man. 

The  general  rejoicing;  nature's  jubilee. 

11.  Calendar    of    returning    life,    recorded    and    il- 
lustrated. 

12.  Study  of  trees  and  bushes  in  relation  to  man  and 
animal  life. 

Which  do  birds  like?    Insects?    What  birds? 
What  insects? 
Uses  of  trees. 

13.  Significance  of  Arbor  Day.     Planting  of  trees, 
shrubs,  etc.     (Arbor  Day  in  literature.) 

GARDENING 

Follow  all  instructions  to  the  letter.  For 
example,  if  the  directions  advise  to  plant 
one-half  inch  deep,  do  not  plant  two  inches 
deep.    The  depth  of  sowing  is  very  import- 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  139 

ant  and  varies  with  every  crop;  therefore, 
follow  directions. 

Plan  your  lessons  well.  You  and  your 
pupils  should  know  exactly  what  you  are 
going  to  do,  and  how  you  are  going  to  do  it, 
every  time  you  go  into  the  garden.  Con- 
sider also,  that  unless  you  keep  the  pupils 
interested  and  husy,  all  the  time,  order  and 
discipline  cannot  be  maintained.  The  most 
successful  teachers  are  those  who  follow 
this  advice.    Organization  is  essential. 

Keep  the  children  busy  all  the  time.  They 
cannot  all  sow  seeds  or  water  at  the  same 
time,  but  they  can  take  turns.  The  garden 
will  supply  enough  work,  if  you  know  how 
to  direct.  Let  them  hoe,  pick  bugs,  pull 
weeds,  clean  up,  straighten  garden  edges, 
make  labels,  label  rows,  etc.  Prepare  your- 
self by  reading  all  the  garden  books,  cata- 
logs, government  and  other  bulletins  that 
you  can  get  hold  of.  Remember  there  is  a 
great  deal  to  be  learned.  You  want  the  chil- 
dren to  do  the  work  accurately  and  to  learn 
certain  fundamental  principles. 


140  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Use  the  planting  tables  in  the  books  for 
planting.  Consider  the  ultimate  size  of  the 
plant  and  the  amount  of  room  it  requires  at 
maturity. 

Always  place  the  tools  back  in  their 
proper  place,  clean  and  in  good  order.  Do 
not  let  the  children  use  tools  for  hall  hats, 
shinney  sticks,  vaulting  poles,  stilts,  etc.  Do 
not  let  them  play  with  the  hose,  watering 
pots  or  sprinkle  one  another  with  water. 

When  you  water,  soak  the  soil  well.  Test 
the  penetration  with  the  finger  or  a  stick. 
The  soil  wants  to  be  wet  to  a  depth  of  two 
or  three  inches  at  least.  Do  not  dribble  the 
water  on  the  surface,  but  soak  the  soil.  Use 
a  nozzle  on  your  hose.  Do  not  wash  out  the 
seeds  by  watering  immediately  after  plant- 
ing.  Soak  the  soil  well  the  night  before. 

Do  not  crowd  the  seeds  in  the  rows  or 
drills.  You  waste  your  seed  by  so  doing,  for 
you  will  have  to  thin  out  your  rows  when 
crowded,  in  order  to  make  room  for  the 
growing  plant.  Consider  the  ultimate  size 
of  the  <?rop  and  sow  accordingly.    Radishes 


SUGGESTIVE  ST^UDY  141 

are  about  an  inch  in  diameter;  do  not  sow 
them  closer  than  that.  Do  not  sow  in  dry 
soil.  Firm  the  soil  over  the  seeds  with  the 
hands.  Rake  some  loose  soil  over  the  seeds 
with  the  hands  to  make  a  surface  mulch  and 
aid  in  ventilation. 

Make  a  map  of  your  garden  according  to 
scale.  Plan  your  planting  according  to  your 
map.  Locate  all  the  crops  on  paper,  indicat- 
ing crop,  time  of  planting,  distance  apart  of 
rows,  size  of  beds,  distance  within  rows, 
walks,  etc.  With  very  young  children  this 
work  may  follow  the  actual  work  out-of- 
doors.  Older  children  should  do  this  before 
planting.  Plan  to  have  all  flowers  at  one 
end,  bordering  the  walk.  Plant  similar 
kinds  together.  Po  not  plant  tall  kinds  in 
front  of  low  kinds,  so  that  the  light  will  be 
excluded  from  these.  Select  some  crops  that 
mature  early  for  small  children.  In  that 
case  you  must  plan  to  plant  something  in 
their  places  before  the  season  is  over,  so  that 
the  garden  will  be  full,  when  the  children 
come  back  for  the  harvest  in  the  fall.    Plant 


142  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

everything  in  straight  rows  running  north 
and  south.  Do  not  plant  in  figures,  etc.  It 
is  not  good  gardening  and  not  good  art. 

In   planning   the    garden,    consider   the 
following : 

1.  Is  the  plant  hardy  or  tender  ?   Early  or 
late  ?    When  shall  we  plant  ? 

2.  Is  it  transplantable  or  not  ? 

3.  Preparation  of  soil  for  each  crop. 

4.  Depth  of  planting  for  each  crop. 

5.  Distance  apart  in  the  row.     (Accord- 
ing to  ultimate  size.) 

6.  Distance  apart  of  the  rows  or  hills. 
Let  the  children  take  part  in  all  processes. 

The  entire  area  should  be  dug  over,  and 
while  the  ground  is  damp,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly fined  with  a  rake,  all  stones  and  lit- 
ter removed,  then  smoothed  and  levelled. 
Before  planting  it  is  w^ell  to  let  the  children 
fine  the  soil  with  their  hands.  Cloddy, 
lumpy  soil,  soil  that  is  rough  and  uneven,  is 
not  fit  for  gardening.  If  the  soil  is  too  wet, 
wait  until  it  dries  out.  If  too  dry,  soak  well 
a  night  or  two  before  you  work  it  or  attempt 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  143 

to  plant.  Make  your  walks  flat  with  a  small 
gutter.  Make  the  beds  small  enough  so  the 
children  can  get  at  them  easily — without 
stepping  into  the  bed  to  weed  or  work. 

Sowing.  In  sowing  the  various  crops,  do 
not  sow  too  deep  or  too  shallow.  If  too  deep, 
seeds  may  not  germinate  until  late  or  not  at 
all.  If  too  shallow,  seeds  will  be  washed  out 
or  burned  and  baked  under  the  hot  sim.  The 
general  rule  is  that  seeds  should  be  sown  at 
a  depth  of  four  times  their  diameter,  though 
there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Very  small 
light  seeds  must  be  barely  covered  and  pro- 
tected with  small  light  brush,  light  boards, 
pieces  of  bagging.  These  must  be  removed 
the  first  morning  the  seedlings  appear. 

In  transplanting  plants  to  the  garden  see 
to  it  that  the  ground  is  moist  and  choose  a 
cool,  cloudy  day,  if  possible.  Early  in  the 
morning  is  also  a  good  time.  Take  up  the 
plants  to  be  moved  with  all  the  soil  and  roots 
it  is  possible  to  save,  protect  with  paper,  and 
transplant  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Space 
individual  plants  far  enough  to  allow  room 


144  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

for  best  development.  8et  the  plants  deep 
enough,  so  the  first  wind  will  not  blow  them 
out ;  so  the  watering  wiU  not  wash  them  out. 
Not  so  deep,  however,  as  to  bury  parts  which 
should  be  in  the  light.  Spread  roots  out  well 
and  shake  loose  soil  down  among  them,  then 
-firm  the  soil  around  the  roots.  Leave  a  de- 
pression aroimd  the  plant  so  the  water  will 
run  to  the  plant  and  not  away  from  it. 
Water  at  once,  soaking  the  soil  well  by  re- 
peated waterings.  Protect  the  plant  for  a 
few  days  by  placing  an  inverted  pot  over  it ; 
tip  the  pot  by  placing  a  stone  under  one  side. 
Also  snip  off  carefully  a  few  of  the  older 
leaves.  All  of  this  care  prevents  an  excess  of 
evaporation  and  gives  the  plant  a  chance  to 
adapt  itself  to  its  new  environment. 

The  following  kinds  are  selected  for  the 
primary  grades  because  of  the  relative  ease 
with  which  they  can  be  raised ;  also,  because 
some  of  them  mature  early,  and  little  folks 
must  see  results  of  their  labor  sooner  than 
older  people.  This  is  not  true  of  all  the 
crops    selected,    however.      The    children 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY 


145 


should  be  thorouglily  acquainted  with  these, 
and  know  the  simplest  principles  of  garden- 
ing. Label  everything  you  plant,  giving  (1) 
kind;  (2)  variety;  (3)  date.  Stake  out  your 
rows  with  stakes  and  string  in  order  to  get 
your  rows  straight.  Plant  a  whole  row  be- 
fore covering  seeds. 


VEGETABLES 

Beeta 

Parsley 

Bush  beans 

Popcorn 

*  Tomato 

Lettuce 

Radish 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

PiiTnpkin 

Onion  sets 

Salsify 

*  Cabbage 

Turnips 

FLOWERS 

*  Sweet  Alyssura 

Ageratum 

Nasturtiums 

Marigold 

*  Balsam 

*  Snapdragon 

Sweet  peas 

Calendula 

*  Petunia 

Zinnia 

California  popi 

)y     Cosmos 

Plants  marked  *  should  be  transplanted 
in  order  to  insure  the  best  results  during  the 
growing  season.  Others  may  be  trans- 
planted. Tomatoes  must  be  protected  from 
early  frosts.  It  is  well  to  do  your  trans- 
planting not  much  before  the  middle  of  May, 


146  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

in  order  to  avoid  frost.  Sweet  peas  are  best 
in  before  the  last  of  March ;  many  people  say, 
'St.  Patrick's  Day.'  (This  for  the  latitude  of 
New  York,  Chicago,  Denver.) 

The  following  books  are  helpful:  L.  H. 
Bailey:  The  Practical  Garden  Book,  Mac- 
millan  Co.  L.  H.  Bailey:  Principles  of 
Vegetable  Gardening,  Macmillan  Co.  L.  H. 
Bailey:  Garden  Making,  Macmillan  Co. 
L.  H.  Bailey:  The  Horticulturist's  Rule 
Book,  Macmillan  Co.  Allen  French:  The 
Book  of  Vegetables,  Macmillan  Co.  Bull. 
No.  94,  U.  S.  department  of  Agriculture: 
The  Vegetable  Garden.  Bull.  No.  255,  U. 
S.  Department  of  Agriculture:  The  Home 
Vegetable  Garden. 

(The  author  is  indebted  for  most  of  the 
directions  on  gardening  to  Mr.  H.  Hoch- 
baum,  formerly  of  the  Colorado  State 
Teachers'  College.) 

Remember  that  gardening  offers  one  of 
the  best  means  for  leading  a  normal  life  at 
school.  It  builds  up  physical  and  mental 
health,  creates  social  situations  which  must 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  147 

be  met  in  terms  of  conduct,  and  yields  def- 
inite results  which  give  satisfaction  and  joy. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  most  wholesome  occupa- 
tions in  which  children  can  share  in  the  gen- 
eral movement  of  helpfulness  for  the  com- 
mon good. 

WEATHER  AS  IT  AFFECTS  OUR  LIFE 

Weather  is  not  only  of  universal  interest, 
but  no  one  can  escape  it.  Everyone  has  a 
mental  attitude  towards  the  weather;  shall 
it  be  from  the  beginning  a  happy,  receptive 
one?  It  is  the  one  universal,  impersonal 
topic  of  conversation.  It  does  much  to  color 
the  backgromid  of  our  lives.  Prolonged 
weather  becomes  climate ;  man  is  essentially 
dependent  upon  these  physical  forces  in  the 
routine  of  his  daily  existence.  It  is  then 
most  pertinent  that  some  time  should  be 
given  by  children  to  an  interpretation  of 
weather  conditions  as  they  affect  themselves 
and  their  environment.  Thus  it  is  an  in- 
troduction to  the  interpretation  of  climate 
in  its  effect  upon  man's  life. 


148  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Fall:— 

1.  Early  frosts. 

Necessity  of  covering  plants ;  starting  furnace ; 
the  harvest;  picking  of  fruit;  ripening  of 
nuts;  pretty  landscape  in  the  morning;  dis- 
appearance of  animals.  Character  of  day 
and  nights  when  we  have  frost;  effects  of 
sun  on  frost ;  where  it  stays  longest. 
2.  Heavy  winds. 

What  winds  bring  rain,  snow,  fair  weather,  etc. 
Points  of  compass.  Direction  as  seen  by 
smoke,  grass.  Flying  kites;  dropping  of 
foliage ;  warmer  clothing ;  blowing  of  papers 
and  dust  indicates  need  for  cleanliness ;  dam- 
age done  by  wind.  Sailing  boats.  Making  of 
weather  vane;  wind  mills.  (The  Little  Half 
Chick.) 

3.  Hunter's  moon  and  harvest  moon;  beginning  of 
interest  in  moon,  stars,  constellation.  Position  in 
sky ;  phases  of  moon.     Sailing  vessels  by  stars. 

4.  Shortening  of  days.  Relation  of  sun  and  human 
beings. 

Warmest  at  noon;  changing  position  of  sun; 
rising  and  setting;  temperature;  highest; 
change  in  thermometer;  shadow  stick;  sun- 
dial ;  how  people  tell  time  by  the  sun  without 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  149 

a  sundial.     On  which  side  of  the  house  do 
flowers  bloom  the  longest ;  why  ? 

5.  Mental  attitude  of  cheerfulness  and  receptivity 
towards  weather. 

6.  Excursions  of  many  kinds  before  winter  sets  in. 

7.  Equinoctial  storms. 

Effect  upon  landscape;  closing  of  doors  and 
windows ;  necessity  of  cleanliness  in  entering 
houses;  indoor  amusements. 

8.  Preparation  for  winter. 

(See  Animal  and  Plant  Life) ;  buying  of  coal; 
getting  of  winter  clothing;  winter  occupa- 
tions starting  in;  less  freedom  and  time  out 
of  doors. 

Winter: — 

1.  Short  days  and  cold  weather. 

Feeding  of  out-door  animals  which  remain  with 

us. 
Home  amusements. 
Home    lighting    and    heating.      Ventilation, 

plumbing,  etc.    (See  Social  Experience.) 
How  to  dress  indoors  and  out.      Value  of  cold 

baths. 
Plants   in   south   windows;   turning   to   sun. 

Reasons. 
Taking  sunny  side  of  street. 


150  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Continuation  of  study  of  sun,  temperature. 
Amount  of  coal  used ;  care  of  furnace. 

2.  Snow  and  ice. — Uses. 

Winter  sports ;  sleigh  riding ;  shovelling,  coast- 
ing, skating,  snow-balling. 

Covering  for  vegetables  in  snow. 

Freezing  of  water  pipes  less  probable.  Investi- 
gation of  plumbing  system.  Experiments  in 
expansion;  in  crystallization.  (See  Social 
Experience.) 

Ice  harvest  for  summer  use. 

3.  Beauty  of  landscape. 

Art  work ;  use  of  winter  material  for  decoration. 

4.  Eskimo  life. 

Spring: — 

1.  Early  rains. 

Spring  rain  and  the  farmer. 

Thawing  ground;  starting  sap  in  trees;  start- 
ing growth  in  plants ; '  sugar  bushes.  * 

Bad  roads;  mud;  care  about  house.  Need  for 
improvement;  paving  streets,  making  side- 
walk. 

Joy  of  play;  paddling;  mud-pies;  molding  of 
physiographic  features — rivers,  lakes,  deltas, 
peninsula,  islands,  slopes,  etc.   (Third  grade.) 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  151 

Pleasure  of  ducks,  geese,  etc.  Robin  singing  in 

rain.    Birds'  bath. 
Forms  of   vapor   under   different  conditions. 

Eecognition  and  significance. 
Earthworms  and  rain.  Robins,  earthworms  and 

rain. 

2.  Experiments    in    condensation    and    evaporation 
based  on  concrete  experience. 

3.  Thunderstorms. 

Teach  enjoyment  of;  electricity,  where  do  we 
use  it ;  rainbow. 

4.  Early  warm  days. — Effects  on  us;  on  vegetation; 
on  animal  life. 

Picnics;  lesson  out-of-doors. 

House-cleaning  time  when  doors  and  windows 
can  be  open  and  sun  is  shining ;  value  of  air- 
ing and  sunning. 

Fresh  spring  clothing. 

5.  Early  spring  flowers ;  bulbous  roots. 

6.  Attractive  weather  charts  all  through  year;  con- 

tinuation of  topics  started  in  fall. 

7.  Hard  and  soft  water ;  effect  on  skin ;  clothes ;  tea- 
kettle.   Source  of  supply. 

MISCELLANEOUS 
1.  Soil — Best  soil  to  play  in — sand. 
Worst  soil  to  stick  to  feet — clay. 
The  leaves  clinging  to  and  mixing  with  soil. 


152  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Grood  garden  soil.  Investigate  and  find  out  what 
is  best  combination  in  connection  with  garden- 
ing and  germination  of  seeds. 

Effect  of  different  kinds  of  soil  on  seeds. 

Experiments  in  germination. 

TVhich  soil  holds  most  water!  Longest?  Ex- 
periments. 

Application  to  growing  of  plants. 

Soil  that  is  too  wet ;  too  dry.  Effect.  Experience 
in  caring  for  plants. 

Excavations ;  house  foundations,  etc. 

Difference  in  color,  texture  of  soil.  The  element 
of  beauty ;  of  possibilities  for  growth. 

Cracked  ground  in  cold  winter  and  dry  summer. 

Location  in  field  of  good  and  poor  soil  for  grow- 
ing purposes.    Sand  dunes  and  their  vegeta- 
tion. 
2.  Stones. — Collection  of  pretty  colors,  shapes. 

Investigation  of  ant-houses  and  material  used. 

The  pebbles  of  rivers,  lakes,  etc.    'Skipping' 
stones. 
What  can  we  use  them  for  ? 

Bowlders;  fences  made  of  material  gathered 
from  fields. 
Why  the  farmer  does  not  like  stony  fields. 

Primitive  man  and  his  stone  implements; 
flaking  process,  etc. 


SUGGESTIVE  STUDY  153 

Crystallization.     Precious    and    semi-precious 
stones.    Jewelry.    The  prism. 
Rocks. — Joy  of  climbing. 

Use  for  caves,  etc. ;  primitive  man. 

How  and  what  trees  and  flowers  cling  to  rocks. 

Cracks  in  the  rocks ;  how  they  get  there. 

Action  of  water,  frost,  wind. 
Coloring  of  rocks ;  effect  of  sun  and  moisture  on 

color;  beauty. 
Rocky  foundations. 

In    river;    effect    on    bathing,    boating, 

swimming. 
In  garden ;  effect  on  labor  and  plants. 
In  city  streets,  etc. ;  blasting. 
Building  stone ;  kinds ;  identification  in  the  field ; 
qualities  necessary.  (See  Outline  on  Shelter.) 
Making  soil  from  rocks. 

Animal  and  plant  life  in  rocks;  fossils.  What 
do  they  tell  us  ? 
Metals  and  minerals  used  at  home  and  ways  of 
using. — Gold,  silver,  coal,  tin,  brass,  zinc,  iron, 
steel,  copper,  aluminum,  lime,  mica,  etc.  Am- 
monia.   Asbestos. 

(a)  Use,  value,  comfort  and  money. 

(t)   Source  of  supplies,  suggesting  labor  and 

interdependence, 
(c)  Method  of  obtaining. 


154  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(d)  Simple  properties  and  distinguishing  fea- 
tures. Why  is  one  better  than  another  for  a 
specific  purpose  ? 

5.  Materials  made  of  inanimate  nature  and  used  in 
homes. 

(a)  Glass,  cement,  mortar,  brick,  plaster,  etc. 

(b)  Silver  polish,  hand  sapolio,  bath  soap. 

(c)  Powders  used  for  bugs  and  insects;  sprays 
for  trees,  etc.  Where  and  how  obtained? 
What  substitutes  could  be  used?  Why 
important  ? 

6.  Literature.    (A  few  suggestions.) 

Pudding  Stone.  Nature  Myths.  Flora  Cooke. 
Pigs  and  Wolf.   Folktale. 
Bible  story  of  house  built  on  sand  and  rock. 
Camels  and  caravans  in  sand  storms. 
Fossils.    Poem  (Boiler),  The  Petrified  Fern. 


LITERATURE  AND  PURPOSEFUL 
ACTIVITIES 

There  are  included  in  this  book  sugges- 
tive bibliographies  of  poems  and  stories  tab- 
ulating some  of  the  material  which  has  been 
found  helpful  and  valuable  in  meeting  the 
needs  of  primary  children.  The  list  is  not 
exhaustive.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may  be  help- 
ful and  possibly  a  point  of  departure 
towards  better  things. 

The  plea  for  a  more  unified  curriculum,  a 
more  rational  mode  of  approach,  a  more 
scientific  method  of  procedure  in  organizing 
the  school  life  of  our  little  children  is  grow- 
ing in  intensity.  It  demands  that  the  ex- 
periences and  activities  of  the  children  be 
given  fair  play ;  that  in  order  to  enable  their 
reactions  to  be  the  best  possible,  they  be  per- 
mitted to  deal  with  real  situations  in  school 
as  they  do  elsewhere  and  to  profit  by  their 
rich  social  inheritance.  Much  of  this  social 
inheritance  is  expressed  in  art  form,   in 


155 


156  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

painting,  sculpture,  rhythm,  song,  poetry, 
story  and  drama.  These  are  as  much  the 
privilege  of  every  child  as  are  the  more  ob- 
vious elements  of,  his  social  inheritance,  the 
economic  and  industrial.  They  should  be 
equally  taken  for  granted.  This  thought 
has  been  incidentally  expressed  before,  but 
it  is  so  far-reaching  in  its  effects  that  it  de- 
serves to  be  given  expression  for  its  own 
sake.  So  long  as  art  expression  is  considered 
a  luxury  rather  than  a  necessity,  the  lives 
of  children  and  mature  people  alike  must  be 
more  meager  and  limited,  less  resourceful, 
convincing  and  rebounding  than  the  prom- 
ise of  their  original  nature  and  the  rich- 
ness of  their  social  inheritance  warrant  or 
justify. 

Literature  deals  with  all  phases  of  human 
experience ;  it  is  a  source  of  inspiration ;  it 
lends  zest  and  dignity  to  labor ;  it  expresses 
man's  attempt  to  interpret  the  phenomena 
of  nature;  it  clothes  general  truths  in  alle- 
gorical garb ;  it  shows  human  nature  and  na- 
ture in  relation ;  it  enters  into  every  activity 


LITERATURE  157 

of  human  life ;  it  conveys  ethical  standards 
of  conduct  in  impersonal  setting,  thus  con- 
stituting itself  a  force  in  the  initiatory  steps 
toward  improvement  of  individual,  per- 
sonal conduct  by  furnishing  objectives  to  be 
realized. 

Reading  and  literature  are  closely  related 
in  that  reading,  like  oral  language,  is  a  ve- 
hicle by  means  of  which  literature  is  con- 
veyed from  generation  to  generation.  Here- 
in lies  the  responsibility  of  using  reading 
with  small  children  as  well  as  with  older 
ones  for  the  purposes  of  this  transmission, 
rather  than  for  the  manipulation  of  value- 
less material  required  of  them  until  recently. 

It  is  never  too  early  to  grow  a  taste  for 
good  literature.  Is  this  not  proven  by  the 
appreciation  which  even  two-  and  three-year 
old  children  show  for  Mother  Goose  rhymes 
and  simple,  cumulative  folk  tales'?  Unless 
this  stimulus  is  applied  at  an  early  age,  a 
most  valuable  opportunity  is  neglected;  it 
may  never  recur.  A  case  illustrating  this 
point  Is  that  of  an  intelligent  man  above 


158  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

the  age  of  tMrty,  who  had  never  read  poetry 
and  who,  realizing  this  fact,  could  not  com- 
pel himself  into  a  fondness  for  and  an  ap- 
preciation of  this  form  of  literature. 

It  is  in  early  childhood,  not  at  a  set  time 
in  an  isolated  period,  but  in  close  contact 
with  all  child  experiences  and  activities,  that 
the  treasures  of  literature  must  be  made  ac- 
cessible to  the  mind  and  heart,  and  by  the 
process  of  absorption,  as  it  were,  be  permit- 
ted to  influence  the  life.  The  inheritance  of 
literary  treasures  is  so  great,  that  only  the 
best  need  be  used.  Even  by  the  exercise  of 
some  elimination  there  is  no  danger  of  ex- 
hausting the  supply,  not  though  the  life  be 
one  of  four  score  years  and  ten. 

The  esthetic  value  of  literature  must 
never  be  lost  sight  of.  Literature  must 
never  become  primarily  a  device  for  didac- 
tic teaching.  However,  the  ethical  value  of 
literature  is  grealt,  no(t  merely  because  it 
holds  up  to  the  child  high  ideals  and 
some  of  the  best  creations  of  man's  brain. 
The  love  of  literature  may  easily  become  an 


LITERATURE  159 

appetite  merely,  unless  it  becomes,  as  it  were, 
part  of  the  marrow  of  our  bones.  The  op- 
portunities for  translating  the  ideals  it  pre- 
sents into  terms  of  human  conduct  are  su- 
perior to  the  ordinary  direct  method  because 
of  the  impersonal  character  of  the  appeal. 
To  illustrate: — ^A  group  of  children  is 
studying  the  King  Arthur  legends,  reading 
Tennyson  and  other  versions  imbued  with  the 
atmosphere  of  the  times.  In  the  process  of 
representing  the  story,  characters  are  chosen 
not  on  the  basis  of  who  can  render  the  best 
*  performance,*  but  on  the  basis  of  who  will 
derive  the  greatest  benefit  from  such  an  im- 
personation. 'Suppose  a  shy,  loose- jointed, 
slouchy  boy  is  selected  for  the  part  of  King 
Arthur.  Under  the  demand  of  the  part,  the 
boy  begins  to  stand  erect  and  to  carry  him- 
self with  a  measure  of  the  dignity  required. 
If  he  does  not,  his  companions  remind  him 
of  his  deficiency  not  in  his  private  capacity, 
but  as  representative  of  the  character 
chosen,  bringing  about  the  desired  effect. 
Here  is  the  teacher's  opportunity  in  private 


160  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

to  offer  a  fruitful  suggestion:  "You  did 
splendidly.  Do  you  realize  how  well  you 
stood,  spoke,  looked?  How  you  made  the 
others  play  up  to  your  part?  How  easy  it 
would  be  to  do  this  every  day  ?  How  much 
it  would  help  you  in  class,  in  getting  a  job, 
in  business?  etc.,  etc.'^  Thus  an  ideal  con- 
ceived by  impersonation  from  literature 
may  become  fruitful  by  changing  for  the 
better  many  personal  habits.  In  this  man- 
ner does  dramatization  become  educational. 
Illustrations  of  this  t}^e  might  be  multi- 
plied indefinitely. 

Here  is  another  suggestion.  Do  not  insist 
continually  upon  children's  Helling  the  story 
back'  to  you  as  a  language  exercise.  This 
practice  vitiates  the  main  purpose  of  a  good 
story.  Let  the  children  live  the  story,  let 
them  play  it,  creating  their  conversation  as 
they  go  along  or  using  that  of  the  book. 
They  will  get  all  the  language  exercise  neces- 
sary out  of  this  and  get  it  more  sanely.  Also, 
if  you  wish  the  story  retold,  have  the  child 
retell  it  as  one  character  in  the  story,  tell- 


LITERATURE  161 

ing  only  what  has  come  within  the  experi- 
ence of  that  particular  character.  By  thus 
representing  one  at  a  time  the  main  charac- 
ters, you  will  'get  back'  the  essentials.  You 
will  get  a  great  deal  more.  Instead  of  a  par- 
rot-like repetition  of  the  story,  you  will  get 
from  every  child  original  thinking,  a  pro- 
jection of  himself  into  a  new  situation,  a  re- 
construction of  the  story  from  a  different 
angle  and  an  exercise  in  discrimination  and 
judgment  worth  immeasurably  more  than 
mere  reproduction.  Applied  to  the  story 
of  The  Wolf  and  the  Three  Little  Pigs,  this 
would  mean  that  the  first  two  little  pigs 
would  tell  their  experience  up  to  the  time 
where  the  little  house  of  straws  and  sticks 
tumbles  in  upon  them,  their  conversation 
ending  in  a  squeal  as  they  are  attacked  by 
the  wolf ;  the  wolf  would  tell  his  tale  up  to 
the  point  possibly  where  he  decides  to  climb 
down  the  chimney,  ending  with  a  howl  as 
he  falls  into  the  water;  the  third  little 
pig  would  tell  his  story  from  the  meeting 
of  the  man  with  the  bricks  to  the  happy  con- 


162  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

elusion  of  the  story.  Such  constructive 
story-telling  has  a  distinct  value  in  itself 
and  paves  the  way  for  the  telling  by  the  chil- 
dren of  wholly  original  stories. 

Tell  or  read  the  stories  and  the  poems  to 
the  children  at  the  proper  time;  love  them 
and  render  them  well.  There  is  no  excuse 
for  poor  or  hurried  presentation  of  literary 
gems.  The  children  will  love  them  because 
you  do  and  because  of  tlieir  intrinsic  appeal. 
They  will  without  compulsion  learn  some 
gems;  they  will  attempt  to  create  some  of 
their  own ;  they  will  live  the  stories  in  play 
and  understand  the  characters  and  situations 
by  so  doing.  Their  experience  and  their 
power  of  appreciation  will  grow.  At  the 
same  time  their  knowledge  of  the  meanings 
of  words  and  their  usage  of  language  will 
improve  beyond  any  goal  attainable  through 
formal,  set  language  exercises. 

Language  is  a  means  of  communication,  a 
social  achievement.  It  is  as  much  a  means 
of  stimulating  thought  and  action  in  others 
as  it  is  an  avenue  for  self-expression.   Hence 


LITERATURE  163 

its  function  is  primarily  the  transmission  of 
thought.  This  interpretation  of  language 
should  ever  be  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher, 
because  upon  it  depends  her  treatment  of 
language  in  the  schoolroom.  In  order  most 
easily  and  adequately  to  produce  thought 
and  action  in  others,  certain  language  forms 
have  from  time  to  time  been  accepted  for 
universal  usage;  for  this  reason  these  cor- 
rect and  choice  forms  are  taught  in  the 
school.  To  achieve  this  goal  is  always,  how- 
ever, merely  a  means  to  the  larger  end;  it 
should  be  treated  as  of  secondary  import- 
ance. 

All  of  the  children's  interests,  activities, 
and  contacts  find  expression  through  oral 
and  written  language  as  well  as  through 
other  forms  of  expression.  The  same  prin- 
ciple underlies  the  learning  of  language, 
which  is  at  the  basis  of  all  learning.  Let  us 
state  it  again. 

The  children's  activities,  interests  and 
contacts  furnish  the  motive  which  prompts 
expression  in  oral  and  written  language. 


164  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Under  the  pressure  of  this  vital  impulse, 
language  is  more  fluent,  more  spontaneous 
than  imder  any  external  compulsion ;  greater 
effort  is  made  by  the  children  to  convey  ex- 
actly their  meaning  and  to  bring  about  the 
desired  conduct  on  the  part  of  others.  The 
need  for  proper  expression  is  more  keenly 
felt  and  a  greater  willingness  to  cope  with 
and  overcome  errors  results.  The  gain  in- 
cludes a  minimum  amount  of  drill  necessary 
to  overcome  errors,  a  maximum  amount  of 
improvement  in  language,  an  increase  in 
time  available  for  the  real  live  issues  at 
hand.  (Eead  J.  Dewey,  Interest  and  Effort 
in  Education.)  One  of  these  live  issues  is 
the  love  and  appreciation  of  beautiful 
literature. 


THE  'FORMAL  SUBJECTS*  AS  PURPOSE- 
FUL ACTIVITIES 

I.  The  strength  and  value  of  the  claim 
admitted  and  illustrated. 

In  a  plan  of  work  as  outlined  in  this  book 
the  claim  of  the  so-called  'formal  subjects' 
becomes  at  times  very  insistent.  It  is  per- 
haps more  insistent  here  than  in  a  more  tra- 
ditional program  because  of  the  fact  that 
these  'subjects*  function  in  answer  to  a  need 
inherent  in  the  situation ;  that  without  them 
the  desired  experience  cannot  be  complete. 

So  important  is  this  functioning  of  num- 
ber, reading  and  writing  in  experience,  that 
reference  has  been  made  to  it  again  and 
again.  In  the  chapter  on  the  purpose  of  the 
book,  attention  has  been  called  to  the  neces- 
sity of  now  and  then  placing  the  emphasis 
on  reading;  the  program  allots  two  periods 
per  day  to  these  activities;  the  illustration 
showing  the  difference  between  problems 
and  projects  has  been  chosen  from  the  field 

165 


166  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

of  reading.  Throughout  the  chapters  on  so- 
cial and  nature  experience  allusions  to 
number,  reading  and  writing  have  indicated 
ways  of  supplementing  and  enriching  ex- 
perience through  these  channels  of  ex- 
pression. 

In  order  still  further  to  illumine  the  rela- 
tion of  these  subjects  of  the  curriculum  to 
the  entire  scheme  of  work,  the  unit  of  social 
experience  previously  described  has  been 
drawn  upon  for  data.  Very  frequently 
number,  reading  and  writing,  or  any  two  of 
these,  enter  into  the  same  experience,  so 
that  it  becomes  difficult  to  draw  a  sharply 
dividing  line.  The  following  examples  re- 
late number,  reading  and  writing  to  the  unit 
of  social  experience  referred  to : 

Number : — 

1.  In  becoming  acquainted  with  the  chil- 
dren's families  one  factor  emphasized  was 
the  difference  in  numbers;  counting  and 
comparison  of  numbers  within  the  range  of 
the  members  in  families  was  resorted  to.  It 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  167 

led  to  number  combinations  as  high  as  nine. 

2.  In  the  letter  writing  and  letter  carrier 
episode,  the  question  of  letter  postage  arose. 
The  playing  of  'post  office/  selling  stamps, 
learning  about  first  and  second  class  mail 
and  the  present  differences  in  price  of  first- 
class  mail  for  distance  and  domestic  or  for- 
eign mail  proves  a  profitable  topic  in 
number, 

3.  Constructive  activity  always  involves 
measurements  and  elements  of  accuracy  and 
comparison.  8o  the  size  of  the  tables  and 
chairs  made,  needs  to  be  determined  and  the 
proper  pieces  prepared  and  fitted  together. 

4.  Marketing  involved  the  elements  of  act- 
ual cost,  of  ratio  of  the  size  of  the  family 
to  the  amount  needed.  Some  of  the  children 
did  much  of  the  buying  for  the  family  and 
had  quite  a  background  of  common 
experience. 

5.  Collections  made  by  the  class  for  Lib- 
erty Loan  Bonds  were  counted.  The  pur- 
chasing of  war  etamps  and  certificates  can 
be  encouraged  in  connection  with  the  move- 


168  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

ment  for  saving  and  conservation.  The  sim- 
ple bookkeeping  which  this  kind  of  work 
involves  carries  with  it  the  need  for  number 
concepts  and  for  writing  and  reading.  Some 
valuable  lessons  on  the  proportionate  ex- 
penditure of  allowances  can  be  taught  little 
children  through  their  own  pennies. 

6.  Playing  'store'  in  school  with  articles 
furnished  by  the  children,  with  real  money, 
at  real  prices  was  a  favorite  occupation  and 
gave  opportimity  for  making  change. 

'Beading  and  Writing : — 

1.  The  nursery  rhymes,  involving  much 
repetition,  can  be  used  in  reading  as  are  the 
Mother  Goose  rhymes  in  some  of  the  attrac- 
tive modern  readers. 

2.  Miss  Dopp's  primer,  Bobby  and  Betty 
at  Home,  supplements  well  the  study  in  so- 
cial experiences. 

3.  Action  games,  similar  to  those  in  Sum- 
mers' thought  reader,  can  be  played  with 
hotme  activities.  The  children  themselves 
suggest  many  of  these. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  169 

4.  In  marketing  or  shopping,  lists  of  ar- 
ticles needed  can  be  made  out  as  is  done  in 
tbe  ordinary  home.  Receipts  and  slips  made 
out  by  trades  people  are  used  in  school  to 
check  up  articles  needed  in  the  home. 

5.  Letters  going  to  the  mail  box  must  be 
properly  stamped  and  addressed,  otherwise 
they  will  not  reach  their  destination.  What 
is  the  'proper '  way  ?  Is  there  also  a  *  proper ' 
way  for  the  inside  of  the  letter?  Simple 
invitations  to  social  functions,  little  notes  to 
sick  friends,  requests  for  material  needed 
from  outside  sources  could  be  composed  by 
the  children  and  sent. 

6.  Gardening  involves  every  now  and  then 
the  use  of  reading,  writing  and  number.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  few  activities 
naturally  pursued  by  children,  which  do  not 
in  some  way  make  use  of  these  avenues  of 
expression. 

There  is  no  opposition  in  the  curriculum 
between  the  teaching  of  the  content  and  the 
tools  which  assist  in  its  manipulation.    Un- 


170  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

der  the  stimulus  of  properly  motivated  in- 
terest they  supplement  each  other,  econ- 
omizing and  concentrating  effort  and  pro- 
ducing more  adequate  results.  In  this  dove- 
tailing of  forces,  number,  reading  and  writ- 
ing become  strong  agents  in  the  formation 
of  good  mental  habits,  and  realize  their  full 
educational  value.  The  amount  of  skill  to  he 
developed  in  the  use  of  any  one  tool  at  any 
given  time  must  he  equal  to  the  difficulty 
felt  in  each  specific  instance  in  overcoming 
the  obstacle  incurred  in  the  problem  under 
consideration,  at  the  time  that  obstacle 
arises;  taking  for  granted,  of  course,  that 
the  problem  is  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  chil- 
dren working  upon  it.  Underdevelopment 
of  skill  hampers  progress  by  the  discourag- 
ing results  it  produces  and  by  the  inability 
it  involves  to  approximate  visions  or  ideals ; 
overdevelopment  of  skill  places  the  empha- 
sis at  the  wrong  point  and  makes  of  primary 
significance  what  should  be  of  secondary 
importance. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  171 

Scientific  standards  of  measurement  are 
an  aid  to  teachers  in  keeping  the  balance  be- 
tween content  and  tool,  providing  always 
that  the  true  significance  of  the  scientific 
test  as  a  means  to  an  end  is  held  in  mind. 
The  scientific  test  is  helpful  only  in  so  far 
as  it  checks  and  evaluates  for  purposes  of 
proportionate  progress;  never  as  an  end  in 
itself.  Where  the  test  makes  it  feasible  for 
children  themselves  to  compare  their  results 
with  those  previously  achieved — as  is  the 
case  in  the  handwriting  scales — the  scientific 
standard  has  the  additional  value  of  function- 
ing directly  in  the  experience  of  the  children 
by  enabling  them  to  become  conscious  of  their 
increase  in  proficiency  without  the  help  of 
the  teacher.  When  scientifie  tests  reach  that 
measure  of  perfection  where  they  will  truly 
interpret  qualitative  progress  as  well  as 
quantitative  results,  their  value  will  be 
greatly  increased.  In  the  meantime,  one  of 
the  judicious  uses  to  which  they  may  be  put 
is  to  ascertain  whether  the  tools  used  in  edu- 
cation— such  as  nmnber,  reading  and  writ- 


172  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

ing — are  getting  fair  and  proportionate  rep- 
resentation in  a  program  devoted  to  growth, 
to  child  experience  and  activity. 

II.  Reading,  the  acquiring  and  stimulat- 
ing of  thought. 

Ideally,  reading  should  become  one  of  the 
normal  child  activities  at  the  moment  when 
the  child  wishes  to  acquire,  for  himself  or 
for  others,  thought  from  the  written  or 
printed  page ;  for  this  is  the  accepted  func- 
tion of  reading  in  human  life.  It  is  probable 
that  this  moment  will  in  our  country  in  a  ma- 
jority of  cases  come  to  children  at  a  com- 
paratively early  age,  because  of  the  large 
amount  of  reading  material  abroad,  and  be- 
cause of  the  importance  attached  to  reading 
by  older  people,  both  of  these  factors  acting 
as  unconscious  stimuli  to  the  naturally  imi- 
tative child. 

In  order  to  direct  this  unconscious  stimu- 
lation into  the  best  channels,  the  child  should 
be  surrounded  by  much  of  the  good  litera- 
ture available  in  picture  and  story  books. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  173 

By  knowing  such  books  to  be  a  part  of  every- 
day life,  by  being  read  to,  by  observing 
others,  the  child  will  realize  that  much  that 
he  wants  can  be  gathered  from  this  source, 
and  he  will  learn  to  read  easily  in  his  effort 
to  help  himself.  Proper  motivation  for 
reading,  constant  access  to  literature  that  is 
worth  while,  skillful  manipulation  by  a  help- 
ful teacher,  are  three  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  the  economy  of  time  and  effort, 
and  the  adequacy  of  results  in  the  teaching 
of  reading. 

Under  existing  conditions  not  every 
teacher  can  carry  to  its  limits  the  ideal  plan. 
She  can,  however,  surround  the  child  with 
attractive  material  which  will  make  the  ap- 
peal ;  she  can,  moreover,  provide  for  motiva- 
tion. She  can  see  to  it  that  reading  shall 
be  used  in  school  life  as  are  oral  language, 
representative  play,  constructive  activities 
and  other  forms  of  expression. 

Any  project  that  is  occupying  the  children 
intensively  will  at  some  time  need  to  find  ex- 


174  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

pression  through  the  medium  of  written  lan- 
guage, or  the  printed  symbol  used  in  read- 
ing. By  proper  association  of  thought  with 
symbols,  the  blackboard  can  become  a  pow- 
erful aid,  recording  by  a  casual  word  or  an 
explanatory  sentence  the  life  of  ideas  in  the 
classroom.  This  life  of  ideas  draws  upon  the 
resources  of  social  and  nature  experience,  of 
play,  of  constructive  activity,  of  literature, 
of  everything  in  fact,  which  the  child  touches 
day  by  day ;  hence  the  possibilities  of  teach- 
ing reading  in  these  connections  are  great. 

The  dramatic  approach  to  reading 
through  folklore  and  games  carries  a  strong 
appeal ;  other  means  need  not  be  neglected. 
A  few  suggestions  are  presented  to  illustrate 
the  general  appeal  to  reading  of  the  entire 
field  of  study. 

1.  Jingles  with  element  of  repetition  are 
valuable. 

2.  Representative  play  furnishes  oppor- 
tunity for  identification ;  for  instance,  life  in 
camp  may  result  in  sign  posts  directing  to 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  175 

'camp,'  'tent,'  'mess  house,'  'fire.'     These 
may  be  some  of  the  labels  used. 

3.  Lists  of  foods  used  for  breakfast  or 
other  meals  can  be  made  previous  to  going 
marketing. 

4.  Pictures  can  be  collected,  picture  books 
made  and  explanatory  labels  attached. 

5.  The  need  for  the  writing  of  date,  day 
of  the  week,  month,  will  often  arise. 

6.  Need  for  names  and  addresses  of  chil- 
dren will  appear. 

7.  Results  of  excursions  provide  for  group 
diaries.  So  also  do  calendars  of  weather  and 
out-of-door  life  (disappearing  and  return- 
ing). 

8.  Procedure  in  experiments  performed 
with  results  achieved,  when  recorded,  fur- 
nishes a  profitable  summary  for  the  work 
done. 

9.  Directions  for  constructive  activities, 
games,  etc.,  can  be  given  through  the  proc- 
ess of  reading  or  writing.  Daily  bulletins  of 
news  may  be  handled  in  the  same  way. 


176  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

10.  Simple  bookkeeping  of  class  expenses, 
war  stamp  purchases,  individual  savings,  or 
thrift  clubs,  necessitates  reading  or  writing. 

11.  Games  of  various  kinds  may  be 
played,  similar  to  those  mentioned  in  the 
Summers'  action  reader. 

12.  Reading  may  become  as  natural  and 
joyous  an  activity  as  any  other,  if  placed  on 
the  same  rational  basis.  Any  legitimate  and 
successful  method  used  in  the  teaching  of 
reading  ordinarily  will  be  acceptable  in  this 
scheme.  Several  reading  lessons  composed 
by  children  are  added  as  suggestions. 

Reading  lessons  composed  by  children  of 
first  and  second  grades  illustrating  experi- 
ences in  the  field  of  nature  and  literature. 

The  Blackbied 

I  am  a  red  wing  blackbird. 

I  am  not  the  blackbird  that  was  baked  in  the 

pie. 
I  can  walk. 

Do  you  know  where  my  nest  is  ? 
It  is  not  in  the  tree. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  177 

It  is  in  the  high  grass. 
It  is  a  deep  nest. 
Why  is  my  nest  so  deep  ? 
My  eggs  have  black  speckles. 

I  have  a  red  head. 

I  have  a  white  breast. 

I  have  a  black  back. 

I  have  black  and  white  wings. 

I  have  a  black  tail. 

My  tail  is  stiff. 

My  bill  is  black. 

My  tail  helps  me  climb. 

I  peck  the  trees. 

I  do  not  sing. 

Do  you  know  me  ? 

Hiawatha 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  woodpecker? 

I  will  tell  you  how  he  got  the  tuft  of  red 
feathers  on  his  head. 

Nokomis  once  told  Hiawatha  to  go  and 
find  the  great  Pearl-Feather. 

It  was  he  who  sent  the  white  fog. 


178  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

It  was  lie  who  sent  the  fever  to  the 
children. 

Hiawatha  found  him  in  his  wigwam. 

He  fought  with  him  all  day,  but  could  not 
kill  him. 

Suddenly  he  heard  a  little  woodpecker  in 
the  tree. 

This  is  what  the  woodpecker  sang : 

**Aun  your  arrows,  Hiawatha,  at  the  head 
of  great  Pearl-Feather. 

There  alone  can  he  be  wounded. '  * 

That  is  how  Hiawatha  killed  the  great 
Pearl-Feather. 

Then  Hiawatha  called  the  woodpecker 
from  the  tree. 

He  stained  his  tuft  of  feathers  red  with 
blood,  because  he  had  helped  him. 

That  is  how  the  woodpecker  got  the  tuft 
of  red  feathers  on  his  head. 

Indian  Story  of  a  Star 

There  was  a  star. 
It  fell  from  the  sky. 
It  fell  to  the  earth. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  170 

It  could  not  get  back. 
So  the  star  wandered  about  the  earth. 
It  grew  lonesome. 
It  said,  ''Where  shall  I  live? 
I  will  go  where  people  can  see  me. 
They  were  glad  to  see  me  in  the  sky. 
They  will  be  glad  to  see  me  here." 
At  last  the  star  came  to  a  pond. 
Some  white  water  lilies  were  growing 
there. 
The  star  said,  ''This  is  the  place  for  me. 
I  shall  live  in  the  water  lily." 
Have  you  ever  seen  it  there? 

Indian  Story  of  Michabo 

Michabo  was  a  great  Indian  chief. 

He  loved  the  mountains. 

He  loved  the  prairies. 

He  smoked  a  great  peace  pipe. 

Sometimes  he  smoked  it  in  the  mountain. 

Sometimes  he  smoked  it  on  the  prairie. 

The  smoke  rose  into  the  air. 

The  smoke  covered  the  mountains. 

The  people  saw  it. 


180  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  people  said,  *'It  is  haze." 

The  people  said,  '*It  is  Indian  summer." 

Indian  Story  of  the  Robin 
There  was  a  little  Indian  boy. 
He  was  eleven  years  old. 
He  wanted  to  be  an  Indian  chief. 
He   wanted    to    do    something    for   the 
Indians. 
His  father  said,  ^'Can  you  live  all  alone? 
Will  you  not  be  afraid? 
Can  you  live  alone  and  not  eat  ? 
AU  Indian  chiefs  must  do  that." 
The  little  boy  said,  *'Yes,  father, 
I  can,  I  shall  not  be  afraid. ' ' 
So  the  father  built  a  wigwam. 
He  built  it  in  the  woods. 
Then  he  went  away. 
The  little  boy  was  all  alone. 
He  was  lonesome. 
He  was  himgry. 
But  he  was  not  afraid. 
The  father  came  every  morning. 
He  looked  at  the  little  boy. 
Then  he  went  away. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  181 

One  morning  the  father  came. 

The  little  boy  was  not  there. 

The  father  looked  all  around. 

There  was  a  little  robin  on  the  wigwam. 

The  robin  sang,  *'Here  I  am! 

I  shall  fly  to  the  Indians. 

I  shall  sing,  'Cheer  up!' 

That  will  help  them. 

Good-by,  father !  Cheer  up,  cheer  up !  " 

Reading  lessons  composed  by  the  children 
illustrating  results  of  excursions  taken  and 
experiments  performed.  All  the  leaflets 
were  read  with  keen  relish : — 

We  went  to  the  vineyard. 
The  woman  cut  bunches  of  grapes. 
She  earned  one  dollar  a  day. 
She  worked  nine  hours  a  day. 

First  we  washed  the  grapes. 
Then  we  took  them  off  the  stems. 
We  boiled  them  ten  minutes. 
Then  we  put  them  into  Mrs.  Nichols'  jelly 
bag. 

We  let  them  drip  all  night. 


182  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PREVIARY  GRADES 

The  next  day  we  boiled  the  juice  again. 

The  scum  came  to  the  top. 

Then  we  put  in  the  sugar. 

We  boiled  it  five  minutes  more. 

We  put  it  into  the  jelly  glasses. 

It  cooled  off  and  was  stiff. 

We  went  to  a  farm. 

The  farmer  showed  us  the  corn  hung  up 
to  dry. 

The  farmer  showed  us  his  cows. 

He  showed  us  his  potatoes. 

He  thrashed  some  rye  for  us  with  a  flail. 

He  fanned  some  rye  with  a  fanning 
machine. 

The  grain  came  out  on  one  side. 

The  ehaff  came  out  on  the  other  side. 

We  saw  a  little  calf. 

We  saw  pigs,  too. 

We  saw  ducks  and  chickens. 

We  saw  oats  and  wheat  in  the  bins. 

There  were  some  farm  horses. 

There  were  many  corn  stalks. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  183 

We  weighed  two  pounds  of  peaches. 
We  weighed  half  a  pound  of  sugar. 
We  weighed  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
water. 
Then  we  put  the  peaches  into  hot  water. 
Then  we  put  the  peaches  into  cold  water. 
Then  we  took  off  the  skin. 
Then  we  boiled  the  sugar  and  water. 
We  made  syrup. 

We  put  the  peaches  into  the  syrup. 
We  boiled  the  peaches  five  minutes. 
Then  we  put  them  into  a  quart  jar. 
They  look  good. 

Corn-Bread 

Take  one  cup  of  milk. 

Take  one-half  cup  of  sugar. 

Take  one  cup  of  flour. 

Take  one  egg. 

Take  one  cup  of  cornmeal. 

Take  a  pinch  of  salt. 

Take  one  cubic  inch  of  butter. 

Take  a  teaspoonf ul  of  baking  powder. 


184  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Beat  the  egg. 

Melt  the  butter. 

Mix  the  butter,  milk,  sugar,  egg  and  salt. 

Stir  well. 

Put  in  eornmeal,  flour  and  baking  powder. 

Stir  well. 

Grease  the  pan. 

Bake  well. 

III.  Phonics.    The  tool  for  reading. 

After  a  number  of  weeks,  when  a  certain 
facility  in  reading  has  been  gained  and  a 
reasonable  vocabulary  acquired,  some  of  the 
words  learned  may  be  used  as  basis  for  ear 
training  and  phonics.  By  this  time  the  chil- 
dren have  discovered  that  reading  has  value 
for  them;  they  have  been  surrounded  by 
some  of  the  attractive  books  published  at  the 
present  time,  and  they  have  begun  to  realize 
that,  in  order  to  use  them,  they  must  be- 
come able  to  help  themselves.  This  is  the 
time  for  the  teacher  to  present  ways  and 
means  to  this  end.    This  order  of  procedure 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  185 

is  in  line  also  with  the  best  psychological 
opinion. 

The  value  of  ear  training,  the  apprecia- 
tion of  sounds  and  clear  enunciation  must 
be  emphasized  by  means  of  the  best  methods 
known  to  the  educational  world.  Many  of 
the  words  learned  in  the  reading  make  a 
good  introduction  to  the  teaching  of  inde- 
pendence in  'word  getting/  and  to  the  'word 
families'  which  are  a  helpful  point  of  de- 
parture for  acquiring  many  other  words 
needed.  The  work  in  phonics  should  be  as- 
signed consciously  by  the  teacher  to  its 
proper  place,  it  being  the  tool  necessary  for 
the  perfection  of  reading,  with  which  read- 
ing it  must  never  be  confused.  Games  are 
of  large  value  in  the  teaching  of  phonics. 

There  is  every  reason  for  using  all  educa- 
tional resources  accepted  as  sound  in  the 
teaching  of  phonies,  in  order  to  reach  with 
the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  euergy 
that  independence  in  the  acquisition  of  new 
words  which  the  child  requires  to  be  a  good 
reader.     The  points  here  emphasized  are: 


186  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

(1)  The  postponement  of  phonies  until 
NEEDED  as  a  tool  for  self  help.  (2)  The  dis- 
tinction in  thought  and  separation  in  time 
on  the  daily  program  of  reading  and  phon- 
ics. (3)  The  use  of  methods  for  teaching 
phonics  in  line  with  the  best  thought  of  the 
day.  (4)  The  subordination  of  phonics  as  a 
tool,  or  a  means  to  a  larger  end,  to  the  more 
important  process  of  reading.  (5)  The  ap- 
proach to  phonics  through  channels  already 
opened  by  the  child's  own  interests.  (6)  The 
utilization  of  the  child's  love  of  play  and 
games  in  the  method  selected  to  teach 
phonics. 

IV.  Writing,  a  means  of  communication. 

Anything  that  is  a  part  of  the  child's  ex- 
perience in  school  life  may  function  in  his 
written  expressions,  providing  only,  (1) 
that  he  Jms  something  to  express;  (2)  that 
he  wishes  to  express  it  through  the  symtolb 
used  in  writing;  (3)  that  the  mechanics  of 
the  process  are  not  beyond  his  muscular  and 
nervous    control.     In   written    expression 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  187 

again  the  child's  motive  should  be  the  dom- 
inating factor  in  the  situation.  With  this 
in  mind,  the  thoughtful  teacher  can  grasp 
many  opportunities  for  guiding  the  children 
along  this  avenue  of  expression.  Unless 
used  in  this  manner,  written  expression  has 
no  place  on  the  program  of  any  grade ;  only 
thus  can  it  be  what  it  should  be,  expression 
of  thought  for  the  satisfaction  of  one's  self, 
or  the  benefit  of  others.  Why  should  little 
children  be  forced  into  the  mechanics  of 
vo-iting,  unless  they  have  in  their  minds 
something  they  wish  to  convey  to  others 
through  this  channel? 

Those  of  us  who  are  placed  in  a  position 
where  we  must  teach  writing,  may  be  reas- 
sured by  the  fact  that  most  children  will 
wish  to  write  as  they  wish  to  read  at  a  reason- 
ably early  age  and  for  the  same  reasons  al- 
ready stated.  Hence  the  question  largely  be- 
comes one  of  rationality  in  approach  and 
method,  such  as  has  been  suggested  in  con- 
nection with  the  teaching  of  reading. 

As  to  method:— The  word  should  be  writ- 


188  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMAEY  GRADES 

ten  upon  the  board  in  large  well-formed  let- 
ters. It  should  be  erased  before  the  child 
writes  it ;  the  limiting  effects  of  copying  in 
the  early  stages  are  seen  in  the  lack  of  inde- 
pendence and  the  absence  of  freedom  of 
movement,  which  is  one  of  the  first  essen- 
tials in  learning  to  write.  When  necessary, 
tracing  on  the  blackboard  may  be  resorted 
to  as  a  preliminary  step  in  order  to  acquire 
muscular  control  and  a  sense  of  form.  This 
should  be  done  only  in  cases  of  extreme  need ; 
the  teacher  may  also  guide  the  hand  and  arm 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  teacher  may 
write  much  and  freely  for  the  children ;  imi- 
tation plays  an  important  part  in  this  work 
and  the  unconscious  feeling  for  rhythm  and 
motion  acquired  in  this  way  is  a  great  help. 
Attention  should,  however,  not  be  centered 
upon  the  movement,  but  upon  the  finished 
product.  This  is  in  line  with  modern  psy- 
chological thoughts.  The  pattern  must  also 
be  good,  because  of  the  imitative  quality  of 
the  child.  Paper  and  pencil  should  not  be 
used  at  all  until  considerable  freedom  of 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  189 

movement  and  skill  in  producing  f  onn  have 
been  attained  upon  the  blackboard.  Free- 
dom of  movement  is  more  important  than 
speed.  Large,  unruled  paper  and  thick  pen- 
cils furnish  the  necessary  material,  when  the 
time  for  this  change  has  come.  As  to  form, 
it  should  be  stressed  only  when  interfering 
with  legibility  or  when  the  result  of  careless- 
ness; it  should  not,  in  the' primary  grades, 
be  an  end  in  itself,  becau^"  oi  the  fact  that 
it  will  then  interrupt  the  true  function  of 
writing,  which  is  the  expressioiTof  thought. 
In  the  primary  grades,  children's  atten- 
tion should  never  be  called  to  the  mistakes 
they  have  made  in  wi'iting;  instead,  the 
wrong  form  should  be  erased,  the  word  re- 
written by  the  teacher,  and  special  emphasis 
placed  upon  the  portion  presenting  the 
difficulty. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  WORK 

1.  Pictures  mounted  and  used  for  various 
purposes  can  be  labelled  by  the  children. 
This  applies  not  only  to  the  field  of  nature 


190  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

experience,  but  to  every  other  field  of  activ- 
ity. For  instance,  in  playing  store,  in  gar- 
dening, in  camping,  in  reproducing  phases 
of  primitive  life,  the  various  names  may  be 
written  for  purposes  of  identification.  In 
camping,  for  instance,  we  may  find  *tent,' 
*  spring,'  *  woodpile,'  'bed,'  etc.,  written  in 
large  letters  and  attached  in  the  proper 
places. 

2.  In  dramatization  of  stories  the  char- 
acters may  be  written  on  the  blackboard  by 
the  children  opposite  their  names.  For 
instance ; — 


hen 

Alice 

oat 

John 

rat 

Mary 

pig 

Louis 

3.  In  impersonation  of  birds,  or  animals, 
as  suggested  elsewhere,  children  may  write : 

I  am  a .    (Whatever  the  bird.) 

Who  are  you? 

Can  you ?    (Whatever  the  action.) 

Later  on  the  children  may  write  descrip- 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  191 

tions  of  themselves  as  representing  certain 
characters  to  be  guessed  by  others.  Any 
number  of  variations  can  be  introduced. 

4.  Simple  invitations  can  be  written  and 
illustrated  for  various  social  purposes. 

5.  Children  can  record  excursions  or  ex- 
periments made,  or  reproduce  conversations 
worked  out  for  dramatic  purposes.  A  few 
samples  of  the  former  are  here  reproduced. 
They  were  written  upon  the  blackboard 
upon  the  return  from  an  excursion,  printed, 
and  read  by  the  children. 

6.  The  calendar  suggested  necessitates  a 
certain  amount  of  writing. 

7.  Simple  messages  to  sick  friends,  to 
Santa  Claus,  for  birthdays,  for  materials 
needed  may  introduce  the  letter  writing. 

8.  The  gardening  project  furnishes  op- 
portunity for  number,  reading  and  wi'iting. 
The  labelling  of  rows  where  seeds  have  been 
planted;  the  cost  of  seeds  and  plants;  ex- 
penses of  tools  used;  calendar  of  planting, 
progress,  harvesting;  the  entries  for  the 
school  fair ;  prizes  awarded,  etc.    One  class 


192  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

worked  out  an  interesting  total  of  the  ex- 
penses of  a  forty-acre  campus  for  the  year 
with  the  result  that  more  respect  and  more 
co-operation  became  evident  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  campus. 

9.  Recipes  worked  out  in  connection  with 
harvesting  and  with  excursions  to  farm  and 
country  involve  number,  reading  and  writ- 
ing; records  of  experiments  performed  do 
the  same;  records  of  excursions  are  of  in- 
terest to  children.  A  good  opportunity  is 
here  afforded  for  giving  free  scope  to  the 
children's  interests,  to  cultivate  a  feeling  for 
essentials,  and  to  initiate  habits  of  continu- 
ity and  coherence. 

10.  The  keeping  of  chickens  (as  suggested 
in  the  F.  W.  Parker  Year  Book  for  1914) 
necessitates  reading,  writing  and  number. 
The  care  of  other  pets  may  suggest  the  same. 

11.  Daily  bulletins  recording  data  of  in- 
terest may  be  posted. 

In  every  case  writing  should  be  a  normal 
expression  of  thought,  just  as  is  speaking, 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  193 

drawing,  modelling  or  any  other  f oim  of  ex- 
pression. The  process  of  learning  to  write 
is  very  complex,  as  is  also  the  process  of 
learning  to  read.  Modem  psychology  holds 
that  because  of  the  function  in  life  of  these 
so-called  formal  means  of  expression,  the 
use  of  the  symbols  is  more  readily  acquired 
under  the  stimulus  of  interest  in  the  content 
or  thought  material  which  they  represent. 
This  is  the  argument  in  favor  of  beginning 
with  simple  words  as  wholes  rather  than  with 
letters  and  parts  of  letters. 

Individual  reports  written  upon  the 
blackboard  by  children  of  the  advanced  first 
and  the  second  grades.  These  reports  were 
the  result  of  out-door  observation,  of  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  story.  The  Birds  of  Killings- 
worth,  and  of  impressions  of  the  Massachu- 
setts bird  law. 

Some  birds  are  pretty.  If  you  hurt  them, 
you  will  have  to  pay  twenty-five  dollars. 

Charles  Arms. 


194  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  birds  said, ' '  Do  not  shoot  us.  We  will 
sing  for  you.    We  will  eat  the  bugs." 

Charles  Gilchrist 

The  birds  said,  ^^  Please  do  not  kill  us. 

We  will  sing  for  you.  We  will  eat  the 
bugs  that  eat  the  flowers  up.  Girls  look 
pretty  maybe  without  having  birds  on  their 
hats."    It  is  $25  to  kill  a  bird. 

There  was  a  place  where  they  killed  birds. 
The  birds  said,  *'Do  not  kill  us.    We  will 
sing  for  you  if  you  do  not  kill  us." 

Virgima. 

The  birds  begged  the  people  not  to  kill 
them. 

Mabel, 

The  birds  said,  '^Please  do  not  shoot  us." 

Kenneth, 

No  one  must  kill  any  birds. 

Waldo. 


us.'' 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  195 

*'We  will  sing  for  you,  please  do  not  kill 

Margaret. 


The  people  used  to  kill  the  birds. 
The  birds  begged  the  people  not  to  kill 
them. 

Jeannette. 

Massachusetts  was  killing  all  the  pretty 
birds.  Some  were  song  sparrows  and  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  birds. 

Alfred. 

There  is  going  to  be  a  committee  and  not 
any  of  the  birds  are  going  to  be  killed.  If 
they  are,  the  people  have  to  pay  $25. 

Elliott. 

The  birds  told  the  people  not  to  kill  them. 

Carlton. 

We  are  not  to  kill  the  birds.  Pretty  little 
birds  do  not  have  to  be  killed  to  make  the 
girls  any  prettier. 


196  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRBIARY  GRADES 

There  were  some  people,  and  they  wanted 
to  kill  all  the  birds.  The  birds  didn't  want 
their  friends  killed. 

Jeannette. 

The  birds  said,  ''Yon  girls  are  pretty 
enough  without  feathers  on  their  hats,  and 
birds,  too." 

Helen. 

The  birds  came  out  and  said,  "Oh,  please 
do  not  kill  us.    We  do  not  like  to  be  killed." 

The  people  in  some  states  have  laws  not  to 
kill  birds. 

Gordon. 

There  were  some  little  song  birds. 
The  people  wanted  to  kill  them. 
But  I  don't  think  they  will. 

Ned. 

The  leaves  have  come  out. 

Our  little  tree  has  some  leaves  on  it. 

It  has  big  leaves  6n  it. 

fJUiott. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  197 

In  the  apple  orchard  tbere  is  a  bird's  nest. 

Alfred. 

There  is  a  bird's  nest  in  onr  maple  tree. 

It  is  a  robin's  nest. 

It  is  woven  high  and  very  well. 

We  can't  see  into  it. 

The  leaves  are  in  the  way. 


Margaret. 


I  saw  a  bird's  nest. 
It  is  a  robin's  nest. 
The  robin  laid  some  eggs. 


Jeannette. 


The  leaves  on  our  poplar  trees  are  almost 
all  out. 

Kenneth. 

The  poplar  trees  in   front  have  many 
nests. 
They  are  last  year's  nests. 
Most  of  the  nests  are  made  of  straw. 

Chas. 


198  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

I  saw  a  jack-in-the-pulpit. 

I  have  a  jack-in-tlie-piilpit  at  home. 

I  saw  a  bird's  nest. 

I  saw  a  blue  jay. 

It  was  flying  for  the  tree. 

Chas.  A. 

I  saw  some  cherry  blossoms  and  some 
tulips. 

I  Ve  seen  some  nasturtiimi  blossoms. 

All  of  the  poplars  are  in  blossom. 

All  of  the  poplars  are  very  pretty  in 
blossom. 

I  saw  some  boys  climbing  up  a  tree. 

They  were  trying  to  get  a  bird's  nest. 

A  man  told  them  not  to. 

Virginia. 

My  brother  saw  the  rainbow  and  I  didn't. 
He  was  down  at  Harry's. 
We  have  a  cherry  tree. 


I  saw  an  orchard  oriole. 
He  had  a  yellow  breast. 


Helen. 


Jeannette. 


FORMAL  SUBJECTS  190 

Our  cherry  tree  is  blossoming. 
Waldo  and  I  sometimes  watch  the  birds 
fly  out  of  their  nests. 

Gordon. 

The  cherry  tree  has  come  out. 

Carlton. 
We  have  two  cherry  trees. 
One  has  blossoms  on  it. 
The  other  has  little  green  balls. 
They  will  be  cherries. 

Oriana. 


CONCLUSION 

The  closing  thought  of  the  book  may  well 
refer  back  to  the  opening  pages,  where  the 
guiding  purpose  has  been  set  forth. 

Although  the  character  of  the  medium  in 
which  the  plan  is  cast  demands  that  chapter 
follow  chapter,  there  is  no  implication  of 
any  serial  order  in  the  working  out  of  its 
parts.  With  the  children  acting  upon  their 
environment  and  being  acted  upon  in  return, 
expressing  themselves  at  one  time  through 
one  channel,  at  another  time  through  a  dif- 
ferent one,  modifying  their  experience  and 
changing  their  points  of  contact — the  out- 
come of  their  growing  process  at  any  given 
time  is  embodied  in  a  bit  of  tapestry  woven 
with  many  threads  of  varying  color  into  a 
coherent  whole.  This  process  of  growth  con- 
tinues as  long  as  there  is  life,  hence  the  pos- 
sibility of  continuous  give  and  take,  of  con- 
stant reaching  out,  of  steady  expansion. 

The  plan  here  presented  is  ethical  because 

200 


CONCLUSION  201 

it  is  unified,  because  it  stimulates  to  and  pro- 
vides for  sharing  with  others,  because  it 
places  motive  for  action  within  the  children, 
tends  to  eliminate  waste  and  educates  to  in- 
creasing self-control ;  it  also  impels  to  action 
and  thus  has  a  direct  bearing  on  daily  con- 
duct. In  its  possibilities  for  establishing  a 
nucleus  of  good  habits  it  becomes  d}Tiamic. 
The  further  application  of  the  principles  in- 
volved must  be  left  to  the  responsibility  of 
the  individual  teacher. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  accompanying  bibliography  includes 
a  selected  list  of  books.  The  basis  for  rec- 
ommendation has  been: — 

1.  Material  found  helpful  as  source  for 
the  teacher  in  carrying  out  the  work. 

2.  Material  accepted  as  desirable  for  the 
use  of  children. 

3.  Material  found  valuable  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  book. 

For  purposes  of  convenience  the  bibli- 
ography has  been  divided  into  two  parts. 
Part  one  lists  some  of  the  books  f  oimd  most 
helpful  in  carrying  on  the  various  phases 
of  the  work.  Part  two  deals  with  a  more 
specialized  selection  of  stories  and  poems 
used  in  connection  with  specific  topics.  It 
indicates  the  kind  of  help  each  teacher  can 
give  herself  in  listing  material  collected 
from  many  sources. 

202 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  203 

PART  ONE 

I.  GENERAL 

Dewey,  J.,  Reasoning  in  Early  Childhood,  Teachers* 
College  Record,  January,  1914. 
Child  and  Curriculum,   University  of  Chicago 

Press. 
The  Schools  of  To-morrow,  Button  Co. 
Interest   and   Effort   in   Education,   Houghton, 

Mifflin  Co. 
School  and  Society,  University  of  Chicago  Press. 
Moral  principles  in  Education,  Houghton,  Mifflin, 
Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
McMurry,  R,  Elementary  School  Standards,  World 
Book  Co.,  Yonkers. 
How  to  Study,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Tanner,  A.,  The  Child,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Forbush,  W.  B.,  Guide  to  Childhood,  American  Insti- 
tute of  Child  Life. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Hoag  and   Terman,   Health  Work  in  the  Schools, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Key,  E.,  The  Century  of  the  Child,  Putnam. 
Payne,  G.  H.,  The  Child  in  Human  Progress,  Putnam. 
Kirkpatrick,  M.  G.,  Rural  School  from  Within.    Lip- 
pincott. 


204  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

II.  PLAY 
Lee,  J.,  Play  in  Education,  MacmiUan  Co. 
Johnson,  G.  E.,  Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  Ginn. 
Cook,  The  Play  Way. 

Curtis,  H.  S.,  Education  Through  Play,  MacmiUan  Co. 
Wood,  W.,  Children 's  Play  and  Its  Place  in  Education. 
Bancroft,  J.  H.,  Plays  and  Games,  MacmiUan  Co. 
Newton,  M.  B.,  Graded  Games  and  Rhythmic  Exercises, 
Barnes. 

III.  RHYTHM  AND  MUSIC 

Hofer,  M.  R.,  Children's  Singing  Games,  Flanagan  Co. 

Music  for  the  Child  World,  Sumney. 
Hill,    P.    S.,    Song    Stories    for    the   Kindergarten, 

Sumney, 
Smith,  E.,  Songs  for  Little  Children,  Milton  Bradley. 
Gaynor,  J.  L.,  Songs  of  the  Child  World. 
Bremner,  K.,  Book  of  Song  Games  and  Ball  Games, 

Barnes. 
Surette,  Th,  (Editor),  Rote  Songs,  Boston  Music  Co. 

IV.  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Russell  and  Bonser,  Industrial  Education,  Teachers 
College,  New  York. 

Dopp,  K.,  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Edu- 
cation, University  of  Chicago  Press. 

Dobbs,  E.  v.,  Primary  Handwork,  MacmiUan  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  205 

V.  ART 

Hofer,  M.  R.,  The  Christ  Child  in  Art,  Sunmey. 
Huell,  E.  M.,  Child  Life  in  Art,  Page  &  Co. 

VI.  children's  reading 

Olcott,  F.  J.,  Children's  Reading,  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Co. 
Field,  W.  T.  Fingerposts  to  Children's  Reading,  Mc- 

Clurg. 

VII.  READING 

Laing,  M.  E.,  Reading,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Huey,    E.    B.,  The    Psychology    and    Pedagogy    of 

Reading,  Macmillan  Co, 
Klapper,  P.,  Teaching  Children  to  Read,  Appleton. 
McClintock,    P.    L.,    Literature    in    the   Elementary 

School,  University  of  Chicago. 

VIII.  SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE 

(For  stories  and  poems  see  special  bibliography.) 
Elementary    School    Teacher,     Chicago     University 
Press,  May,  1906.  Social  activities  in  the  first 
grade  of  the  F  .W.  Parker  School. 
Waterloo,  St.,  The  Story  of  Ab,  Doubleday,  Page. 
Dopp,  K.,  The  Tree-Dwellers,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

The  Early  Cave  Man,  Rand  McNally  Co. 
Jones.  Keep  Well  Stories.    Lippincott. 


206  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  Later  Cave  Man,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

The  Sea  People,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Wiley  and  Edick,  Lodrix,  the  Lake  Dweller,  Appleton. 

Children  of  the  Cliff,  Appleton  Co 
Boas,  F.,  The  Central  Eskimo,  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 

Smithsonian  Institute. 
Schwatka,   F.,    Children   of  the   Cold,    Educational 

Pub.  Co. 
Andrews,  J.,  Seven  Little  Sisters,  Ginn  &  Co. 

Each  and  All,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Hall,  J.,  Weavers  and  Other  Workers,  Rand,  McNally. 
Wade,  H.,  The  Little  Cousin  Series,  Page  &  Co. 
Star,  F.,  The  American  Indians,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Fynn,  A.  J.,  The  Indian  as  Product  of  Environment, 

Little,  Brown  Co. 
Snedden,  D.  S.,  Docas,  the  Indian  Boy,  Heath. 
Farrand,  L.,  Basis  of  American  History,  Harper  Bros. 
Shaler,  N.  S.,  Story  of  Our  Continent,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Ofirpenter,  F.,  Geographical  Reader,  North  America, 

ch.  39,  American  Book  Co. 
Schillig,  Four  Wonders,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  How  We  Are  Fed,  Macmillan  Co. 

How  We  Are  Clothed,  Macmillan  Co. 

How  We  Are  Sheltered,  Macmillan  Co. 
Carpenter,  How  the  World  Is  Fed. 

How  the  World  Is  Clothed. 

How  the  World  Is  Housed. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  207 

IX.  NATURE  EXPERIENCE 

(For  special  references   on  birds,  plants  and  weather 

see  special  bibliography.) 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  Nature  Study  Idea,  Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co. 
Principles  of  Agriculture,  Macmillan  Co. 
Principles  of  Vegetable   Gardening,   Macmillan 

Co. 
Garden  Making,  Macmillan  Co. 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  Agriculture  for  Begin- 
ners, Ginn  &  Co. 
Guyer,  M.  F.,  Question  of  Method  in  Nature  Study, 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  xii,  p.  86. 
Hodge,  C.  F.,  Nature  Study  and  Life,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Caldwell,  0.  W.,  Elementary  School  Teacher,  VoL  x, 

pp.  86, 131, 157  (Nature  Study  in  Grades  I.-V.) 

270,  316,  493. 
Rogers,  J.  E.,  The  Tree  Book,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Keeler,  H.  L.,  Our  Native  Trees,  Scribner. 
Comstock,  J.  H.,  Insect  Life,  Appleton. 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  American  Insects.    H.  Holt. 
Dickerson,  M.  C,  The  Frog  Book,  Doubleday,  Pa?p. 

Moths  and  Butterflies,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Emerton,  J.  H.,  The  Common  Spiders  of  the  United 

States,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Schmucker,  Study  of  Nature,  Lippincott. 


208  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

National  Geographic  Magazine,  May,  1915,  June,  1916, 

Plants;  November,  1916,  Mammals. 
Kelly,  Mrs.  M.  A.,  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors, 

American  Book  Co. 
Maeterlinck,  M.,  The  Life  of  the  Bee,  Dodd  &  Co. 

The  Dog,  Dodd  &  Co. 
Burroughs,  J.,  Birds  and  Bees,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  Nature,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
X.  STORY  TELLING 

Lindsay,  Maud,  Mother  Stories,  Milton  Bradley  Co. 
More  Mother  Stories,  Milton  Bradley  Co. 

Bryant,  S.  C,  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  Co. 
More  Stories  to  Tell,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Stories  to  Tell  the  Littlest  Ones,  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co. 

Lyman,  E.,  Story  Telling,  McClurg  &  Co. 

Bailey,  C.  S.,  For  the  Story  Teller,  Milton  Bradley  Co. 

St.  John,  Edward  Porter,  Stories  and  Story  Telling, 
The  Westminster  Press. 

Thomsen,  6.  Th.,  East  o'  the  Sun  and  West  o'  the 
Moon,  Quiller-Coueh. 

Hofer,  M.  R.,  Stories  of  the  Christ  Child,  Sumney. 

Lagerlof,  S.,  Christ  Legends,  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

Menefee,  M.,  Child  Stories  from  the  Masters,  Rand. 
McNally  Co. 

Alden,  R.  M.,  Knights  of  the  Silver  Shield,  Bbbbs, 
Merrill  &  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  209 

Richards,  L,,  The  Golden  Windows,  Little,  Brown  Co, 
Cooke,  F.,  Nature  Myths,  Flanagan  Co. 
Holbrook,  F.,  Nature  Myths,  Houghton,  Miflflin  Co. 
Hawthorne,  N.,  Tanglewood  Tales,  Houghton,  Mifl3in 
Co. 
Wonder  Book,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Mabie,  H.  W.,  Norse  Stories,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 
Kipling,  R.,  Just  So  Stories,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Arabian  Nights,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Andersen,  H.,  Fairy  Tales. 
Maeterlinck,  M.,  The  Blue  Bird,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 
Barrie,  J.  M.,  Peter  Pan,  Scribner  's  Sons. 
Harris,  J.  C,  Uncle  Remus,  Stokes  Bros. 

XI.  SELECTIONS  OF  POEMS 

Mother  Goose  Rhymes. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  Child  Garden  of  Verse,  Rand,  Mc- 

Nally  Co.  and  others. 
Rosetti,  C.  G.,  Sing  Song,  Macmillan  &  Co. 
McDonald,  C.  S.,  Baby  Classics,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Field,  Eugene,  Child  Poems. 
Riley,  J.  W.,  Child  World,  Bobbs,  Merrill  Co. 
Wiggin  and  Smith,  The  Posy  Ring,  Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co. 
Pinafore  Palace,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Newell,  P.,  Nonsense  Rhymes,  Harper  Bros. 
Hearts  of  Oak  Books,  No.  1,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


210  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Xn.  EEADING  BOOKS  FOR  LITTLE  CHILDREN 
Dopp,  K.,  Bobby  and  Betty  at  Home,  Rand,  McNally. 
Grover,  E.  V.,  Sunbonnet  Babies,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

Overall  Boys,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Summers,  M.,  Thought  Reader,  Beattys. 
Free  and  Treadwell,  Reading  Literature  Series,  Row, 

Peterson  Co. 
Spaulding  and  Bryce,  Dramatic  Reader,  Newson  Co. 
Coe  and   Christie,   Story  Hour  Readers,   American 

Book  Co. 
Horace  Mann  Readers,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Spaulding  and  Bryce,  Aldine  Readers,  Newson  Co. 
Riverside  Readers,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Stepping  Stones  to  Literature,  Silver,  Burdett  Co. 
^sop's  Fables,  Educational  Publishing  Co. 
Progressive  Road  to  Reading,  Silver,  Burdett  Co. 
Art  Literature  Reader,  Atkinson,  Marger  &  Grover. 
Potter,  B.,  Peter  Rabbit,  Saalfield. 
Holbrook,  F.,  Hiawatha  Primer  (grade  2),  Houghton, 

Mifflin  Co. 
Smythe,  L.,  Reynard  the  Fox  (grade  2),  American 

Book  Co. 
Herbst,  Tales  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 

(grade  2),  Flanagan  Co. 
Hill,   J.,   Weavers  and   Other  Workers    (grade  2), 

Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Lewis,  Homer  P.  and  Elizabeth,  Readers,  Lippincott, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  211 

Burgess,  Goop  Tales  (grade  2),  Stokes  Co. 

Beckwith,  In.  Mythland  (grade  2),  D.  C.  Heath  Co. 

Hall,  J.,  Viking  Tales  (grade  3),  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

Bigham,  M.,  Merry  Animal  Tales  (grade  3),  Little, 
Brown  Co. 

Smith,  Eskimo  Stories  (grade  2),  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

Wiley  and  Edick,  Children  of  the  Cliff  (grade  2),  Ap- 
pleton  Co. 
Lodrix,  the  Little  Lake  Dweller  (grade  2),  Apple- 
ton  Co. 

McMurry,  Robinson  Crusoe   (grade  3),  Educational 
Publishing  Co. 

Proudfoot,  M.  H.,  Hiawatha  Industrial  Reader,  Rand, 
McNally  Co. 

Xni.  NUMBER 

F.  W.  Parker  Yearbook,  June,  1915,  pp.  86  ff.— Chil- 
dren's  Experiences  in  Arithmetic,  F.  W.  Parker 

School,  Chicago,  111. 
The  Kindergarten  and  First  Grade,  January,  Febru- 
ary, March,  April,  1917,  Milton,  Bradley  Co. 
Harris-Waldo,  First  Journeys  in  Numberland,  Scott, 

Forsman  Co. 
Smith,  Primary  Arithmetic,  Ginn  &  Co. 
Sujzzallo,  H.,  The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Thorndyke,  E.  L.,  Arithmetic,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 


212  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

XIV.  STORIES  ABOUT  CHILDREN 

Grahame,  K.,  The  Golden  Age,  Lane. 
Gilson,  R.  R.,  In  the  Morning  Glow,  Harper  Bros. 
Wiggin,  K.  D.,  Rebecca  of  Sunny  Brook  Farm,  Hough- 
ton, MifBin  Co. 
Eliot,  G.,  The  Mill  on  the  Floss.   (Maggie  and  Tom.) 
Martin,  G.  M.,  Emmy  Lou,  Doubleday,  Page  Co. 
Barker,  L.  A.,  Romance  of  the  Nursery,  Scribner's 

Sons. 
Kelly,  M.,  Little  Citizens,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Kipling,  R.,  Wee,  Willie  Winkie. 

Baa,  Baa,  Black  Sheep. 
Dickens,  Charles,  Old  Curiosity  Shop.   (Little  Nell.) 

David  Copperfield. 

Nickolas  Nickleby. 

Oliver  Twist. 

Dombey  and  Son. 

Martin  Chuzzlewit. 
Pratt,  Lucy,  Children  Wanted,  Atlantic  Monthly,  No- 
vember, 1916. 
Montague,  What  Mr.  Gray  said,  Atlantic  Monthly, 

April,  1915. 
Warner,  C.  D,,  Being  a  Boy,  Houghton,  Miflflin  Co. 
Riis,  J.,  Children  of  the  Tenements,  Macmillan  Co. 
Mark  Twain,  Tom  Sawyer,  Harper  Bros. 
Peabody,  J.  P.,  Into  the  Little  Past  (Poetry.)  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  213 

XV.  MAGAZINES 

F.  W.  Parker  Yearbook,  F.  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago, 

111. 
Teachers'  College  Record,  Columbia  University  (esp. 

September,  1915). 
Elementary  School  Teacher,  University  of  Chicago 

(esp.  1909-1910). 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  Clark  University  (esp.  Vol.  xii, 

p.  86). 
School  Arts  Magazine,  H.  T.  Bailey. 

PART  TWO 

I.  SOCIAL  EXPERIENCE 

1.  Stories  and  Poems  Found  In  : 

Dopp,  K.,  Bobby  and  Betty  at  Home,  Primer,  Rand, 

McNally  Co. 
Grover,  E.  0.,  Sunbonnet  Babies,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

Overall  Boys,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Free  and  Treadwell,  Reading  Literature  Series,  Row, 

Peterson  Co. 
Horace  Mann  Readers,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Story  Hour  Readers,  American  Book  Co. 
Progressive  Road  to  Reading,  Silver  Burdett  Co. 
Lindsay,  M.,  Mother  Stories,  Dust  Under  the  Rug  (and 

others) ,  Milton,  Bradley  Co. 


214  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Hall,  J.,  Weavers  and  Other  Workers,  Rand,  McNally 

Co. 
Dopp,  K.,  The  Tree  Dwellers,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

The  Early  Cave  Man,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

The  Later  Cave  Man,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 

The  Sea  People,  Rand,  McNally  Co. 
Wiley  and  Edick,  Children  of  the  Cliff,  Appleton  Co. 

Lodrix,  the  Lake  Dweller,  Appleton  Co. 

2.  Poems. 
From  Young  and  Field,  Literary  Reader  No.  III.,  Ginn 

&  Co. 
Rosetti,  C.  G.,  Sleep,  Little  Baby,  Sleep. 

A  Pocket  Handkerchief  to  Hem. 

Lambkins. 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  Father  in  Heaven,  We  Thank  Thee. 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  Farewell  to  the  Farm. 

Happy  Thoughts. 

Whole  Duty  of  Children. 

The  Hay  Loft. 

Marching  Song. 

The  Land  of  Counterpane. 

The  Land  of  the  Story  Books. 

The  Cow. 

Singing. 

Bed  in  Summer. 

Time  to  Rise. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  215 

Sangster,  M.  E.,  Our  Little  Echo. 
Craigin,  M.  A.,  Which  Loved  Best  ? 
Bunner,  H.  C,  One,  Two,  Three. 
Kingsley,  Charles,  The  Lost  Doll. 
Field,  Eugene,  The  Roekabye  Lady. 

So,  So,  Roekabye  So. 

Wynken,  Blynken  and  Nod. 
Lear,  Edward,  Calico  Pie. 

The  Owl  and  the  Pussy  Cat. 
Child,  L.  M.,  Thanksgiving. 
Longfellow,  H  .W.,  The  Village  Blacksmith. 

II.  NATURE  EXPERIENCE 

A.  Birds 

1.  General. 

Chapman,  F.  M.,  Bird  Life,  Appleton  Co. 
Blanchan,  N.,  Bird  Neighbors,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Birds   Every   Child   Should   Know,   Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co. 
Miller,  O.,  Th.,  First  Book  of  Birds,  Houghton,  Miflflin 
Co. 

Second  Book  of  Birds,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Burroughs,  J.,  Wake  Robin,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 

Birds  and  Bees,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
National   Geographic   Magazine,   June,   1913;   April, 

1911;  March,  1914;  May  and  July,  1914;  August, 

1915. 


216  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

2.  Stories. 

Lagerlof,  Christ  Legends,  Robin  Redbreast. 
Holbrook,  Nature  Myths,  Norse  Story  of  the  Wood- 
pecker. 
Cooke,  Nature  Myths,  The  Robin  and  the  Northland. 
Mme.  Maeterlinck,  The  Blue  Bird  for  Children, 
^sop  Fable,  The  Lark  and  the  Mole. 
Bryant,  S.  C,  Stories  to  Tell  to  Children,  Chicken 

Little. 
"Whittier,  J.  G.  (Adapted),  Indian  Story  of  the  Robin. 
Longfellow,  Hiawatha,  Indian  Story  of  the  Wood- 
pecker. 
Hiawatha's  Childhood. 
The  Ravens. 

Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn.    The  Birds  of  Balling- 
worth. 
(Tell  these  stories,  then  read  the  poem  to  the  children.) 
Anderson,  H.  C,  Sunshine  Stories. 

3.  Poems. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  Of  Speckled  Eggs. 

A  Birdie  with  a  Yellow  Bill. 
Field,  E.,  The  Blue  Pigeon. 

The  Partridge. 
Tennyson,  What  Does  Little  Birdie  say? 

The  Owl. 
Aldine  Reader,  Little  Birdie  in  the  Tree. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  «17 

Larcom,  L.,  The  Brown  Thrush. 
Thaxter,  C,  The  Sandpiper. 

Wild  Geese. 

Christmas  in  Norway. 
Bryant,  W.  C.,  Robert  o'  Lincoln. 
Child,  Who  Stole  the  Bird's  Nest? 
Lear,  E.,  The  Owl  and  the  Pussy  Cat  Went  to  Sea. 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  The  Chickadee. 
Tabb,  J.  B.,  The  Blue  Bird. 

Longfellow,  Ewa-yea,  My  Little  Owlet  (Hiawatha). 
Rosetti,  C.  G.,  The  Swallow. 

B.  Plant  Life 
1.  Stories. 

Bryant,  S.  C,  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children- 
Why  the  Evergreen  Trees  Keep  Their  Leaves. 
Why  the  Morning  Glory  Climbs. 
How  We  Came  to  Have  Pink  Roses. 
The  Golden  Cobwebs. 

Stories  for  the  Littlest  Ones— How  the  Maple 
Sugar  was  Found. 

Andersen,  H.  C,  The  Fir  Tree. 
Sunshine  Stories. 
The  Pea  Blossom. 

Cooke,  F.  J.,  Nature  Myths — 
The  Story  of  Clytie. 
Golden  Rod  and  Aster. 


218  PROJECTS  IN  THE  PREMARY  GRADES 

King  Solomon  and  the  Bee. 

Beaver  and  the  Fire. 

The  Story  of  the  Poplar  Tree. 
Greek  Myth  (adapted.)  Persephone  and  Demeter. 

Apollo  and  Daphne. 

Philemon  and  Baucis. 

Hercules  and  Antaeus. 
Hawthorne,  N.  (Adapted),  Tanglewood  Tales. 
Lowell,  James  R.,  Greek  Myth,  The  Story  of  Rhoeeus. 
Longfellow,  H.  W.,  Hiawatha  and  Mondamin. 

Hiawatha  and  the  Ravens. 

Hiawatha  and  His  Canoe. 

Arbutus  Story,  Hiawatha,  Chapter:  The  White 
Man's  Foot. 
iEsop  Fables,  Vine  and  Oak. 

Pumpkin  and  Oak. 
The  Discontented  Pine  Tree. 
The  Norse  Story  of  the  Dandelion.  (Freya's  Tears.) 
Wake  Robin. 

For  more  extended  list,  see  general  bibliography. 
Also :  Harvard  Classics,  Vol.  17 — Folk  and  Fable. 

2.  Poems. 
Bjomsen,  B.,  The  Tree. 
Coolidge,  S.,  How  the  Leaves  Came  Down. 
Tennyson,  A.,  Flower  in  the  Crannied  Wall. 
Bolles,  M.  L.,  The  Petrified  Fern. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  819 

Whittier,  J.  G.,  The  World. 

The  Huskers. 
Lowell,  J.  R.,  Al  Fresco  (in  part). 

The  Nest  (in  part). 

Rhoecus. 
Browning,  R.,  The  Year's  at  the  Spring. 
Browning,  E.  B.,  A  Musical  Instrument. 
Rands,  Great,  Wide,  Wonderful,  Beautiful  World. 
Dunbar,  The  Birth  of  Mom. 
Emei*son,  R.  W.,  May  Day  (in  part). 
Riley,  J.  W.,  The  Brook. 
Sherman,  F.  D.,  The  Daisies. 

For  more  extended  list,  see  general  bibliography. 
Also:  Teachers'  College  Record  for  September,  1906. 

C.  Weather  as  It  Affects  Life 
1.  Stories. 

^sop  Fable,  Sun  and  Wind. 

Beecher,  11.  W.,  The  Anxious  Leaf. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  Michabo  and  the  Peace  Pipe.    (In- 
dian Summer.) 

Andersen,  H.  C,  Sunshine  Stories. 
The  Snow  Queen. 
Sleeping  Beauty. 

Cooke,  F.  J.,  Fire  Stories,  The  Robin  and  the  North- 
land, Nature  Myths. 
The  Beaver  and  the  Fire,  Nature  IMyths. 


220  PROJECTS  m  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Howliston,  What  Cracked  the  China  Pitoher,  Cat  Tails 

and  Other  Tales. 
Longfellow,  H,  W.,  Kabbibonoka  and  Shingebis  the 

Diver  (adapted),  Hiawatha, 
^sop  Fable,  The  Donkey  and  the  Salt. 
Greek  Myths : — Ulysses  and  Eolus. 

Apollo  and  Aurora. 

Apollo  and  Daphne. 

Apollo  and  Clytie. 

Phaeton. 

Hercules  and  Antaeus. 

Persephone  and  Demeter. 

Hermes  and  Apollo's  Cows. 
Mabie,  H.  W.,  Norse  Myths,  The  Story  of  Balder. 
Pratt,  Mara,  Norse  Legends. 
Wade,  Our  Little  Cousin  Series,  Page  &  Co. 
Mary  Smith,  The  Eskimo. 
Wiltse,  Legend  of  the  Dipper,  Kindergarten  Stories. 

2.  Poems. 

Coolidge,  S.,  I  '11  Tell  You  How  the  Leaves  Came  Down. 
Stanton,  E.,  The  Little  Man  in  the  Fire. 
Shelley,  The  Cloud,  (4). 
Stedman,  What  the  Winds  Bring. 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  Autumn  Fires. 

The  Rain  is  Raining  AU  Around. 

The  Wind. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  221 

Moon  and  Stars. 

The  Shadow. 

Bed  in  Summer. 

Windy  Nights. 
Ingelow,  J.,  The  Moon. 

Riley,  J.  W.,  When  the  Frost  Is  on  the  Pumpkin. 
Field,  E.,  Night  Wind. 
Lovejoy,  M.  I,,  Oh,  There  Is  a  Fairy  Artist. 

Twinkle,  Twinkle,  Little  Star. 
McDonald,  G.,  Wind  and  Moon. 
Woods,  The  Rainbow. 
Aldrich,  T.  B.,  Marjorie's  Almanac. 
Thaxter,  C.,  Spring. 
Jackson,  H.  H.,  September  (in  part). 

October  (in  part). 
Lovejoy,  M.  I.,  October  Gave  a  Party. 
Whenever  a  Snowflake  Leaves  the  Sky. 
Rosetti,  C.  G.,  Boats  Sail  on  the  River. 

The  Wind. 

The  Rainbow. 

The  Sea  Horses. 


u 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


B  1  9    1931 


L-9-10m-5,'28 


LB 
1.S13 


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